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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 















































































































































































































































































































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Fia. 1.—Yeast Cells. (Magnified.) 


Fig. 2. — Cross Section of 
Leaf, Showing Cells. 
(Highly magnified.) 



Fig. 3.—Terminal Cell, from 
a Frond of Chara. 
(Slightly magnified.) 


Fig. 4.—Tip of a Hair, from 
Evening Primrose. 
(Highly magnified.) 

















THE. 


Teachers’ Manual 

OF 

SCHOOL EXERCISES, 


BY 


M. F. STUKGES, 


C. E. Class of '86, State University of Iowa, 
WITH AN 




INTRODUCTION, 

BY 


J. L. PICKAKD, LL.D., 

President State University of Iowa. 


PUBLISHED BY 
THE HOME PUBLISHING COMPANY, 
DES MOINES, IOWA. 

1886. 













Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year one 
thousand, eight hundred and eighty-six. 

By M. F. STURGES. 



IOWA PRINTING COMPANY, 










AS A TOKEN" OF LOYE TO 


MY MOTHER, 

WHO, AS A SCHOOL TEACHER AND AS A PARENT, HAS 
ILLUSTRATED HOW FAITHFULLY EACH MAY FOL¬ 
LOW IN THE PATH OF THE GREAT TEACHER, 

THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED 

BY 

THE AUTHOR. 









INTRODUCTION. 


The child of to-day has a curiosity whetted 
by the new things which are so frequently 
brought to his attention in the busy world 
about him. Ignorance of many things un¬ 
known in their childhood to his elders, is 
inexcusable. Sources of information abound 
but are not directly available. In many 
cases, especially in the retired districts of 
our land, the common school teacher must 
be the living cyclopedia. Libraries are at a 
distance. Means to purchase books are lim¬ 
ited. Eager pupils push their questions. 
The puzzled teacher is at a loss for a concise 
answer. This condition of things has sug¬ 
gested to one such teacher the thought of a 
collection of scraps of information the need 
of which his own experience has empha¬ 
sized. This compilation is the result of the 
suggestion. The short statements, which 
are designed only to furnish starting points 
for more thorough study, are presented after 


8 


INTRODUCTION. 


approval by teachers whose special studies 
have made their judgment valuable in each 
of the several fields gleaned. 

The author does not claim for his book 
the merit of a philosophic or scientific ar¬ 
rangement of its contents. His thought 
would not permit such an arrangement, as 
he has gathered bits of information from 
many fields which have been useful to him¬ 
self, and which he believes will be valuable 
to many teachers who are deprived of 
opportunities for miscellaneous reading. 

As the information has been gathered 
from the best available sources, the teacher 
may use it for temporary purposes until 
opportunity comes for fuller study. 

J. L. PICKARD. 

State University of Iowa. 


PREFACE. 


Curiosity paves the way for knowledge. 
She leads us to the well of wisdom, and if 
properly directed, delights in drawing up 
glistening beakers to refresh and strengthen 
the mind. 

The curiosity implanted in the child leads 
him to desire knowledge of things outside 
his limited range of vision. It is thought 
that the one hundred talks herein suggested, 
one hundred views for the teacher’s magic 
lantern, will tend to give a useful knowl¬ 
edge of the world and its ways; of science 
and her value; and of character and its de¬ 
sirability. The text book arms the child for 
its search after wisdom; let this humble 
work help to point out the road. 

I have also aimed to furnish, within these 
covers, a manual treating on various sub¬ 
jects upon which the teacher may often de¬ 
sire information, especially if a library can 
not be readily consulted. 


10 


PREFACE. 


I desire to gratefully acknowledge the 
kindly aid and encouragement given by the 
Faculty of the Collegiate Department of the 
State University. To their careful reviews 
of manuscript and proofs is due much of the 
reliability this work may possess. To many 
others for thoughtful suggestions and helps, 
I wish here to return my thanks. 

In the compilation, the University library 
of 15,000 volumes has been consulted; the 
American Cyclopedia, Johnson’s Cyclopedia, 
and Encyclopedia Brittanica, have been 
freely quoted from. I am indebted to Prof. 
Dana and his publishers,—Ivison, Blakeman, 
Taylor & Co.,—for use of cuts taken from 
his text book of geology; also to The Popular 
Science Monthly for illustrations of plant 
cells, and to A. H. Andrews & Co. for draw¬ 
ing designs. 

The need of a work of this character was 
impressed upon me, while teaching, three 
years since; and I hope that it will now be 
found as useful as it then seemed desirable. 

M. F. S. 


Aprilj 1886 . 


CONTENTS 


Introduction by J. L. Pickard, LL. D. 7 

Preface. 9 

Contents. 11 

Directions to Teachers. 14 

Water. 17 

The Frog. 18 

Horn. 21 

Hair. 22 

The Wasp. 23 

Perspiration. 24 

Origin of our Solar System. 26 

The Mound Builders. 27 

Protoplasm. 29 

Rocks. 31 

Money. 33 

Noted Men of Ancient Greece. 36 

Schools in China. 38 

Table Manners. 40 

The Beaver. 41 

The Arctic Regions. 43 

How Food is Digested. 45 

Discovery and Settlement of the United States. 47 

Indian Customs. 49 

The Geological Ages. 51 

Railway Building. 54 

Tobacco. 56 

Monkeys. 58 

Brief of English History (55 B. C.-1200 A. D.). 60 

The People of Africa. 62 

Glass. 64 

What Makes Bread Rise. 66 

Mohammed. 68 

Music. 70 

Fossils of the Devonian Age. 73 

Coal. 74 

Domestic Animals. 76 

The Moon. 78 

Conquest of Mexico. 80 

Arctic Discovery. 82 

The United States Army. 84 

The Opossum. 86 












































12 


CONTENTS, 


PAG 

Nerves. 87 

Brief of English History (1200-1885). 89 

Sponges. 91 

Florence Nightingale.i. 93 

Artillery. 95 

English Literature. 98 

Population of the World. 99 

Chalk, Slate and Slate-Pencils. 101 

The Fixed Stars. 103 

Drawing. 105 

Washington and American Independence. 108 

Slang. Ill 

Cork. 113 

The Catacombs of Rome. 114 

Free Trade vs. Protection. 116 

Plants. 117 

Kerosene. 119 

Architecture. 120 

The President. 122 

Telegraphy.124 

Birds’ Nests...126 

Naturalization.128, 

Our Law-Makers. 130 

Lincoln and Garfield. 132 

Painting..134 

Teeth. 136 

Silk. 138 

Christmas and New Year. 140 

Four noted Scientists. 143 

Volcanoes . 144 

The French Revolution. 146 

Gold. 148 

The Crusades. 150 

Experiments with Electricity. 152 

Farm Crops...155 

Noted Romans.. .. 156 

Bread Fruit Tree. 157 

Birds. 158 

Comets. 161 

Slavery. 163 

Etiquette. . 165 

Russia. 167 

Pins. 168 

Pompeii. 169 

Two Noted Generals.. 171 

Salt. 174 

How Laws are Made. 175 

















































CONTENTS. 


13 


. PAGE. 

Fishes..176 

Meteors. 178 

Benjamin Franklin. 180 

Chemical Experiments. 1*2 

Alcoholic Drinks. 183 

Flowers. 185 

The Feudal System. 187 

The Trading Rat. 189 

Mars... 191 

Insectivorous Plants. 193 

Elocution. 195 

The Life Saving Service. 197 

Sculpture. 199 

Laying out Public Land. 201 

Rubber. 203 

Air. 204 

The Elephant.206 

Mummies.208 

Bells.210 

Marriage in China. 212 

The White Ant. 214 

Character.216 

Books.218 

Kindergarten Occupations.220 

Calisthenics. 222 

A Geographical Exercise.224 

Hints for “Last Day” Exercises.225 

Mottoes and Maxims .227 

SONGS. 

Home Sweet Home. 229 

There is a Land of Pure Delight.229 

America. 230 

Way Down Upon the Swanee River.231 

Tis the Last Rose of Summer.232 

In the Sweet By and By.233 

Morning Song. 233 

The Song of the Bee. 234 

Shall We Gather at the River.235 

Work For the Night is Coming. 236 

Let us Gather Up the Sunbeams.236 

The Star Spangled Banner. *.237 

Carry Me Back to Old Virginy. 238 

Yield Not to Temptation. 239 

The Mocking Bird.239 

I Love to Sing.240 

When the Heart is Young. 241 

* The Brook. 242 
















































DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS. 


One design of this work is to furnish a 
handy manual of desirable information, but 
the other and more important aim is to pro¬ 
vide the subject-matter for 100 short talks 
to pupils. A portion of the articles can be 
read to the school with little comment, 
others consist of directions for interesting 
general exercises, but* the greater part are 
furnished as texts to be embellished, by the 
teacher, with explanations and personal 
knowledge. A few carefully selected songs, 
adapted to well known tunes, have been 
added; these may be written upon the 
blackboard. The calisthenic exercises may 
be advantageously used when the pupils 
seem tired and listless. The most suitable 
time for talks or other general exercises is 
at the opening of a session, when the chil¬ 
dren, excited by exercise, find it difficult to 
promptly begin the* ever necessary study. I 
have often used them as an incentive to 


DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS. 15 

promptness, for children are always desirous 
to hear about something or somebody. 

The plain statements of facts are given in 
this book; the teacher can use them as bases 
for talks of ten or fifteen minutes each. 
Additional information obtained by the 
teacher may be written upon the purposely 
wide margin. The blackboard should be 
used liberally to illustrate, and on it should 
be placed statements which it may seem 
desirable to especially impress upon the 
pupil. When mention is made of any place, 
it should always be pointed out upon a wall 
map, or found in the geographies. Repeti¬ 
tion of important facts greatly aid a child’s 
memory. After a talk is concluded, the 
scholars should be questioned to more firmly 
fix it upon their minds, as well as to detect 
and remove any false impressions. Ques¬ 
tions may be asked upon the exercise of the 
previous day, or the pupil may write, as an 
essay, the portions he may be able to recall. 
Whenever possible, the talk should take the 
form of an object lesson; this may easily be 
done if speaking of coal, sponges, flowers, 
etc. The pupils may also be encouraged to 
seek information at home upon the morrow’s 


16 


DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS. 


topic, and this will aid and give additional 
interest to the exercise. The articles have 
been graded, and arranged in the order it 
seems most desirable to use them, e. g., “Pro¬ 
toplasm” should precede “Sponges.” The 
exercises have been so selected, that it is 
thought the greater part may be used in any 
school. 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 

OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


I. WATER. 

ILLUSTRATIVE OBJECT LESSON * 

Elicit that water is clear, bright, spark¬ 
ling, pellucid, and flowing. It forms in 
drops. What is the shape of a drop? Put 
some water on a greasy plate. It collects 
into globules. On a clean slate it spreads 
and adheres. Infer that grease repels water. 
This explains birds not getting wet in a rain. 
Drop some water on paper. It spreads, pen¬ 
etrates, for it separates into very small parts. 
Thus water sinks into the soil, and dissolves 
the food for vegetables so that it may be 
absorbed by their fine roots. Notice its re¬ 
fraction of light by placing part of a stick in 
water. The stick appears bent. Other forms 

*The ‘illustrative object lessons’ are adapted from “Gill’s 
Notes on Teaching,” and are'intended to illustrate the proper 
method of using nearly all the exercises afterwards given. 

2 




18 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


of water, are ice, and steam. How obtain 
these forms? What does the floating of ice 
show? What would happen if ice con¬ 
tracted as it froze? Does steam expand? 
Hence principle of steam engine. Some¬ 
times seen as dew. Illustrate by a cold 
plate held over the spout of a kettle con¬ 
taining boiling water, or outside of a drink¬ 
ing glass containing cold water in summer. 
More dew is found on grass and leaves than 
on rocks because such substances radiate 
heat more quickly. Frost is what? 


n. THE FROG. 

ILLUSTRATIVE OBJECT LESSON. 

(Have a frog to illustrate with.) 

Its Early History. —It is first an egg, 
lying at the bottom of a pool of a water. 
After some time it rises to the surface and 
floats. What does that show? Compare 
with a cork and a stone. When thus float¬ 
ing a jelly like substance surrounds the egg. 
After awhile an eye is seen, and very soon 
there is a tadpole. What is it like? Where 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


19 


does it live? On what does it feed? On de¬ 
caying vegetable matter, and differs from 
the frog in having soft lips, teeth, and in 
chewing its food. How does it breathe? By 
gills. It changes and becomes a frog. 

Its Abode. —Where does the frog live? It 
can live in both air and water. Hence called 
amphibious. Ask for other instances. It 
cannot endure great cold nor dry heat. 
Hence it buries itself in winter at the bot¬ 
toms of pools. 

Its Motions. —Look at its legs. How 
many? Which are the longer ones? Point 
out that the hind legs are twice the length 
of the front ones. How does it move on 
land? It walks, or runs, or leaps. Which 
does it do most frequently? Does the fact 
that its hind legs are longest, fit it better to 
jump? State that it can jump twenty times 
its own height, and over a space fifty times 
its own length. Can you do that? Did you 
ever see a frog in water? What was it do¬ 
ing? In what posture was its body? Lying 
flat. What does it use in swimming? How 
does it kick out its feet? Point out that be¬ 
cause of the position of the knee bone, its 


>20 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


hind feet are directed outward. How many 
toes on the fore feet? On the hind feet? 

Its Food. —Lives on insects; hence carniv¬ 
orous. How are they caught? Describe its 
tongue. It is placed in back of mouth, fast¬ 
ened in front, point down toward its throat. 
How brought out of the mouth? It is turned 
as on a hinge, throwing the whole of the 
tongue outside the mouth. It never misses 
an insect. What does that show? Keen 
sight. How caught by its tongue? This 
organ is covered with a sticky fluid. Insect 
is caught on upper surface of tongue, which 
is the lower surface when in its mouth; 
thus the insect is crushed and swallowed im¬ 
mediately. 

Respiration. —The fro% breathes through 
its nostrils, and can also through its skin. 
The skin is moist. Hold a frog in water 
with its head out for half an hour; on tak¬ 
ing out, it weighs half as much again. It 
absorbs water. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


21 


III. HORN. 

ILLUSTRATIVE OBJECT LESSON. 

Where found? What animals have horns? 
Where do the horns grow? What is the 
shape of the horns of different animals? 
All are thick at the base and gradually taper. 
They often point obliquely upward. Elicit 
their use. What have the pupils heard 
about various horned animals? The horns 
are hollow, why not solid? If solid they 
would be more liable to snap or to fracture. 
They would also be heavier, and thus weary 
the animal. 

Of what use is horn to man? When it is 
boiled it becomes a jelly, and after this is 
poured out and spread it becomes solid as it 
cools. It is semi-transparent, and was for¬ 
merly used for windows. In a state of jelly 
it may receive any form, thus we obtain 
handles for knives, combs, and other things. 


22 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


IV. HAIR. 

ILLUSTRATIVE OBJECT LESSOR. 

Hair grows; compare to vegetables. Roots 
of the hairs are deep in the skin. The part 
of a hair which is in the skin is in a sheath, 
which grows along with the hair, and on 
reaching the surface breaks off, forming 
scurf. Just below surface of skin are oil 
sacs that supply hair with oil; no need of 
other oil. These glands stimulated when hair 
is kept well brushed. The hair itself formed 
of two layers around central pith. A quill 
is a good illustration. Inner layer is horny 
cells. Outer layer is epidermis. Pass a hair 
through the fingers, in one direction it is 
smooth, drawn in the other direction it feels 
rough; this is due to horny laminae which 
overlap each other like the scales of a fish, 
only not so regularly. In consequence of 
these, hair possesses great strength. Single 
hairs have supported one to two pounds. 
Color due to pigments unequally distributed 
in the pith. Color changes by age, sorrow, 
and fear. Growth is by pushing the hair 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


23 


forward, additions being at the roof end. 
The disagreeable odor given by burning hair 
is due to the sulphur contained. Hairs are 
not cylindrical, but flattened. The more 
flattened the more curly. Thickness of a 
hair about 1-4Q0 inch. Total number on the 
human head about 120,000. 


V. THE WASP. 


(Have a wasp to illustrate with.) 

Draw out a description. Differences be¬ 
tween a bee and a wasp? Notice its yellow 
rings, its head, eyes, legs, wings, and antennae. 
The female is furnished with a sting, Com¬ 
pare as to wings with bees, beetles, crickets, 
etc. The wasp, bee and ant are alike in 
wing structure. Its wings help respiration 
as well as flight. 

The material of the nest is paper, made 
from woody fiber, often obtained from a dry 
window frame. The wasp has strong, ser¬ 
rated jaws which masticate the fiber, and 
with a sticky fluid, which the wasp secretes, 
pulp is formed. Where are the nests found? 



24 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL. 


Infer that wasps are of different kinds. The 
common wasp makes a globular nest, about 
twelve inches in diameter, under the ground. 
The passages to it are from six inches to two 
feet long, and zigzag. By a contrivance of 
pillars and arches it prevents the nest being 
destroyed by rain. Here wasps are born. 

The wasp is first an egg and then a grub. 
The workers bring food to the grubs and to 
those wasps that stay in the nest. They 
collect the juices of fruit in bags, and carry 
insects home in their jaws. 


VI. PERSPIRATION. 

ILLUSTRATIVE OBJECT LESSON. 

Sweat. —What is it? By experiments 
with glass show that perspiration is going 
on when not seen. Keeps skin from becom¬ 
ing dry. When plentiful called sweat. Is 
separated from the blood. Refer to blood 
vessels and capillaries. From blushing, 
slight cuts, etc., infer that these vessels 
bring the blood to the surface of the body. 
Glands secrete perspiration, and through 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


25 


spiral tubes expel it. Upward of two mil¬ 
lion of these tubes in all. 

Amount. —Whole surface of skin perspires 
but not equally. Whole surface in medium 
sized man 15 sq. ft. = a surface 5x3. Most 
sweat on a warm or cold day? In violent 
exertion it may reach 1 lb. in an hour. 
Emotions effect it, also health and character 
of food. Average amount about 1J lbs. in 24 
hours. 

Checks. —A high temperature expands 
bodies, cold contracts them. Thus more 
blood at surface in warm weather. Pores 
are very small, average nearly 2,000 to sq. 
inch. Infer that they may be easily stopped. 
Dirt, wet cloths or draughts may close them, 
and then poisonous matters cannot be ex¬ 
pelled from the system, except by lungs, 
kidneys, etc- Various diseases have origin 
in stoppage of pores. Infer need of cleanli¬ 
ness, etc. 


26 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


VII. THE ORIGIN OF OUR SOLAR SYS¬ 
TEM. 

The most reliable and generally accepted 
explanation regarding the origin of the solar 
system, is known as the Nebular Hypothesis. 
According to this theory, certain space was 
filled, millions of millions of years ago, with 
a fiery vapor, substances heated so hot that 
they not only were melted but converted 
into vapor. 

As this began to revolve, it assumed some¬ 
what of a disc-like shape, and at last broke 
up into rings of vapor. These began to cool 
in certain places, forming nucleii around 
which other matter gathered as it cooled. 
These assumed the general shape of spheres, 
by revolving both on their own axes and 
around the mass in the center which became 
the sun, and thus were formed the planets of 
our solar system. 

These have been cooling and solidifying, 
until now, the surfaces of some, including 
our earth, are mainly solid; while other 
planets, as Jupiter, are thought to be yet so 
hot as to give off light. Scientific observa*- 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 27 

tions and calculations seem to prove this 
theory true. 


VIII. THE MOUND BUILDERS. 

This name is applied to a people who 
lived in this country before the modern 
Indians. We have no history of them, and 
know nothing of them as a people, except 
what is shown by the remains of them and 
their work, in mounds and buildings. These 
are the most plentiful in Ohio. We have 
been able to learn from them that the 
Mound Builders were a partially civilized 
people, engaged principally in farming. 

They mined copper near Lake Superior, 
and in one place a large piece of copper ore 
has been found, dug out and ready to raise 
to the top of the mine, with their tools lying 
near by. They wore cloth, for it has been 
found in the mounds, as also ornamented 
vases and various other articles. They seem 
to have worshipped the sun. Some of their 
large stone buildings are yet standing. 
Tubes have been found that seem to have 



28 THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 

been made to use as telescopes. Their 
works show a knowledge of geometry, as 
they often used perfect circles and parallel¬ 
ograms. 

How long ago these people lived here, 
where they came from, and how they disap¬ 
peared, may always remain a mystery. 
That centuries have passed since their occu¬ 
pancy, is attested by research; their skel¬ 
etons fall to pieces immediately, on exposure 
to the air, showing that much time must 
have elapsed since they lived here. They 
certainly were not the ancestors of the In¬ 
dians. It is supposed by some that they 
came here from Mexico, but this is not cer¬ 
tain, although the people that inhabited 
Mexico when it was conquered by Cortez 
somewhat resembled them. Perhaps the 
Indians exterminated them, perhaps they 
were driven elsewhere, or a pestilence may 
have carried off the nation of Mound Build¬ 
ers. Their history is buried in mystery. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


29 


IX. PROTOPLASM. 

Protoplasm is a liquid, or semi-liquid, 
transparent, substance. If you were to ex¬ 
amine, with a good microscope, a leaf of the 
aquatic plant known as Nitella, you would 
see that it is all divided up, by thin parti¬ 
tions, into very small spaces, called cells. 
In each of these you would see the proto¬ 
plasm moving up one side of the cell and 
down the other, moving around within the 
cell perpetually. All plants and animals are 
thus composed of these very small parts 
called cells, and in each of these is pro¬ 
toplasm. Protoplasm is called the “Phys¬ 
ical basis of life.” Think, for a moment, 
of this substance moving in every cell 
of every blade of grass around us; perhaps 
our ears are not perfect enough to hear the 
faint murmur of its movement. If you 
were to drop some chloroform on your spec¬ 
imen of Xitel la, the protoplasm would al¬ 
most cease moving for a time, the chloro¬ 
form acting on the protoplasm as it does 
upon a person,—puts it to sleep. If you give 
it too much chloroform, the protoplasm will 


30 THE TEACHERS* MANUAL. 

never recover its motion; it is dead. If the 
cells you are examining be struck a light 
blow, the protoplasm will be stunned, and 
move slowly, but in time will recover its 
motion. Many of the microscopic plants 
and animals consist of only one cell; such 
is the amoeba. This animal, of course 
microscopic, is simply a drop of protoplasm 
with no definite wall to the cell. The am¬ 
oeba can assume almost any shape, in fact 
you can scarcely draw a figure whose form 
the animal cannot copy. This curious little 
being subsists on other microscopic animals 
and plants, and when it comes in contact 
with one, if it wishes to eat it, the agile am¬ 
oeba flows over and around it, and thus hav¬ 
ing made a kind of a stomach of itself, its 
victim is digested. 

In these one-celled animals, there is of 
course no real stomach, no eyes, ears, etc., 
for the whole animal is but a single drop of 
living, moving protoplasm. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


31 


X. ROCKS. 


FORAMINIFERS, OR CALCAREOUS SHELLS OF 
RHIZOPODS. 



Fig. 6. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. 



Fig. 8. Fig. 9. 



Fig. 10. 



Fig. 13. 





Fig. 16. Fig. 17. 


These shells have played an important part in the formation 
of limestones. “In size they are generally from a grain of 
sand to one-eighth of an inch.” Figs. 16 and 17a are nat¬ 
ural size. No. 16 is a nummulite, exterior one-half of it re¬ 
moved, to show the cells within. Such as Fig. 5 often make a 
fine mud or ooze at the sea bottom. Chalk is made mainly 
of such materials. These foraminifers are all marine. (See 
Dana's Geology.) 


Rock, in its molten state, formed the 
greater part of the substance of our globe. 















82 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


When the earth had assumed its present 
form, and was solidifying, a crust first formed 
on the outside, and the seething mass in¬ 
side would often break through this crust or 
alternately elevate and depress it. 

Unstratified rocks are visible in only a 
small portion of the United States. 

The waves of the ocean ground up a part 
of the rock into sand, and the stratified 
rocks are often sand-beds, mud-beds or grav¬ 
el-beds, deposited in the bottom of the 
ocean, and now hardened into solid rock; 
and as the land was sometimes above, and 
at other times below the surface of the 
ocean, layers of rock of various kinds were 
formed. Other stratified rocks were made 
by minute animals called coral polyps; they 
were fixed in place and secreted lime from 
the sea; the substance gathered is now called 
limestone. 

Other limestones were formed out of the 
shells of billions of small animals which 
lived and died in the ocean. A foot in 
thickness of chalk or limestone, would prob¬ 
ably require many years for its formation in 
this manner. (See figs. 5 to 17.) 

The thickness of the stratified rocks varies 


OP SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


83 


from about one mile, as in Indiana, to twen¬ 
ty miles as in Great Britain. As the earth 
became better prepared for man, numerous 
forms of life existed in the ocean, and on 
the land. Their remains are found in the 
rocks, and are called fossils. By the charac¬ 
ter of the fossils the geologist can determine 
the comparative age of the rocks. In some 
places marks were made by the rippling 
waves on the sand which has since changed 
to rock, and often even the impressions of 
rain-drops remain. The soil on the surface 
of the earth is made from disintegrated rock, 
combined with chemical elements from the, 
air and water, which have been gathered 
by plants. 


XI. MONEY. 

Money is any recognized standard of 
value. Our money is made mainly from 
gold, silver and paper, but other countries 
may use other substances. In ancient Rome 
and Greece cattle were used as money. 
Gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, platinum, 
leather and wood have all been used as 
3 



34 THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 

money. The South Sea Islanders, soon after 
the beginning of their intercourse with 
Europeans, would trade anything they had 
for axes, and for some time the value of 
everything was reckoned in them. Axes 
were their money. Cowries, (certain sea¬ 
water shells,) were used in India. Cocoanuts 
and wampum, were used by the Indians. 
Amongst other things which have passed as 
money at one time or another, are jewels, 
codfish, musket balls, nails, corn and beans. 

Now almost all civilized nations use gold 
and silver, one or both, as the money stand¬ 
ard. We have both in use in the United 
States. Money is made a legal tender by 
law; that is, a law is passed that all debts can 
be paid in this money, and creditors must 
accept it in payment. 

We use a dollar as our monetary unit. 
England uses a sovereign = $4.84 nearly. 
Our word dollar was adopted from the Span¬ 
ish; authorities differ on the origin of the 
sign $. Nine-tenths of our gold coin is pure 
gold; of the rest (alloy), one-tenth is silver 
and nine-tenths copper. Our greenbacks 
and silver certificates are simply promises 
by the United States to pay so much gold 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


35 


or silver on demand, and, as the United 
States is amply able to pay it, no one doubts 
but what the promise is as good as the gold. 

During the revolution it became very 
doubtful whether the colonies would ever be 
able to make good the promises on their paper 
money, so that sometimes as much as $200 
in paper was required to buy the same as 
$1 in gold. The money issued by the 
Southern Confederacy (‘61-‘65) will never be 
redeemed. Bank notes (promises on paper 
to pay gold or silver on demand) are secured 
by United States bonds deposited with 
the treasurer of the United States. Banks 
issuing these are called National banks. If 
one of them were to become bankrupt, the 
United States would see that its notes 
were paid from the bonds held in deposit. 


86 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


XII. NOTED MEN OF ANCIENT GREECE. 

The oldest extant literary productions of 
Greece are the writings of 

Homer. —He lived about 1,000 B. C., and 
wrote the “Iliad” and “Odyssey,” which re¬ 
late, in poetry, the deeds of heroes. 

JEsop, —(620 B. C.), is well known for his 
fables. To bring out more strongly a cer¬ 
tain idea or moral, he would write a fable, 
wherein animals, representing certain classes 
of men, were supposed to think and speak 
like people. 

Socrates, —(468-399 B. C.), was a philoso¬ 
pher. He was a very shrewd man in argu¬ 
ment. His wife, Xantippe, is renowned as 
a scold; but as he would often neglect his 
business to talk or study philosophy, and 
not provide as he should for his family, she 
may have had some reason to be vexed. He 
died from poison administered as a punish¬ 
ment for teaching a philosophy which was 
at variance with that commonly received. 

Plato was a pupil of Socrates, and de¬ 
fended him at his trial. He wrote dialogues 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


87 


on such subjects as “The Immortality of the 
Soul.” 

Demosthenes, —(884-822 B. C.), was a great 
orator and patriot, working hard for the 
welfare of his city, Athens. His speeches 
were full of vigor, and three separate times 
he aroused the people to engage in war for 
their country. He committed suicide by 
taking poison when his enemies were about 
to kill him. 

Euclid, —(800 B. C.), was a great mathe¬ 
matician, and arranged the first geometry. 
Some of his demonstrations of problems are 
used even now. 

Plutarch is the great biographer of an¬ 
tiquity, and his “Parallel Lives” is a stand¬ 
ard and useful book to this day. 

(Put on blackboard ) 

Homer, the great Grecian Poet. 

iEsop, the great Grecian Fable-writer. 

Socrates, the great Grecian Philosopher. 

Plato, the great Grecian Essayist. 

Demosthenes, the great Grecian Orator. 

Euclid, the great Grecian Mathematician. 

Plutarch, the great Grecian Biographer. 


88 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


XIII. SCHOOLS IN CHINA. 

There are no school-houses in China, so 
the children are taught in some room in a 
house, or it may be in a temple. There is 
no public tax or appropriation to support 
the schools, but each parent pays the teacher 
for the instruction of his own children. 
Girls are not often sent to school or taught 
to read; it is thought useless to educate 
them. The scholars do not study Arith¬ 
metic, Geography, or the sciences, but in¬ 
stead the writings of two famous men, Con¬ 
fucius and Mencius, and portions of these 
are committed to memory for a lesson. 
They then recite them, standing with their 
backs to the teacher. 

The scholars are not taught in classes, but 
separately. They all study out loud, some¬ 
times screaming at the top of their voices. 
They begin to write as soon as they begin 
going to school, but there are so many char¬ 
acters that it takes a long while to learn to 
write the language rapidly and correctly. 
As the scholars advance, they learn to write 
essays and poems, all the study even then 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


89 


being in the “Chinese Classics ” which term 
comprehends thirteen books. It is consid¬ 
ered useless to study anything else. So gen¬ 
eral are schools in China, that one half of 
the male population are able to read. 

A large share of the offices under the Chi¬ 
nese government are filled by persons who 
have successfully passed certain competitive 
examinations, and certain degrees of Honor 
are given to all who pass, the degree vary¬ 
ing according to the kind of examination 
entered upon. These examinations consist 
entirely of writing essays and poems. The 
Chinese are very anxious to succeed at the 
examinations, and often men will spend 
their whole lives trying to pass the highest 
ones. 

So we see that in perseverance the Chinese 
can set a good example for us. 


40 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


XIV. TABLE MANNERS. 

The mouth should be kept closed in eat¬ 
ing, and as little noise be made as possible. 

A soup-plate must never be tilted for the 
last spoonful, and don’t blow on soup to 
cool it. 

Cheese is eaten with a fork. 

Never use a knife to convey food to the 
mouth; use a fork, or, if need be, a spoon. 

Pie is cut (if possible) with the fork, and 
the fork conveys it to the mouth. 

Do not take the last piece on a dish unless 
offered to you, or you know that plenty more 
can be easily obtained. 

Never leave the table before the others, 
without asking to be excused. 

Never play with anything while at the 
table. 

Never speak while the mouth is full of 
food. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


41 


XV. THE BEAVER. 

The beaver is a native of North America. 
Its body is two to four feet in length; and its 
weight is from 40 to 50 pounds. The color 
is usually a reddish brown. The fore feet 
are much smaller than the hind ones, and 
when sitting or standing on the latter, the 
beaver uses his fore feet as hands. The 
hind feet are webbed, and are used in swim¬ 
ming. But the most noticeable part of the 
animal is the tail, which is nearly a foot 
long, and five inches wide, almost flat and 
covered with horny scales. This tail, which 
is very powerful, is used as a prop when 
standing on its hind legs. It can strike such 
a blow with it, if alarmed, as to be heard 
the distance of half a mile. 

The beavers live usually in water, wherein 
they build their houses of mud and sticks. 
They enter the house from under the water, 
but it is high enough to provide a dry place 
within. They store up food for the winter, 
which consists mainly of bark of trees. 

If the water is not deep enough to suit 
them, and is a running stream, they con- 


42 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


struct a dam across it; this is made of trees 
and sticks, which they float down to it, and 
is plastered with mud. When the current is 
gentle, the dam is carried directly across the 
stream; but where the water is rapid, the dam 
is built with an angle or convex curve up 
stream. Their teeth are so well adapted to 
their habits, that they can cut down trees 
several inches in diameter. 

The beaver, in building his dam, carries 
the materials between his fore feet and chin, 
arranges them with his fore feet, and then 
pounds them into place with his tail. 

The flesh of the beaver is good eating, 
and they are trapped very extensively for 
their fur, which usually sells for from two to 
three dollars each pelt. Ordinarily, this use¬ 
ful, sagacious, and enterprising animal will 
live about ten years. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


48 


XYI. THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 

In the Arctic regions of America we find 
the people called Esquimaux. They are 
very degraded and ignorant. Their huts are 
made of blocks of frozen snow, cut out with 
knives of wolf’s bone. The blocks are cut 
about two inches thick, and if enough light 
does not come through these blocks they cut 
out windows and use ice for glass. In se¬ 
vere weather the hut is built deep in the 
earth so that the top of it is just level with 
the surface outside, and then they construct a 
tunnel through which to get in. They have 
no chimney, hut in its place a hole in the top 
of the hut, and it is always very warm in¬ 
side. 

Among the animals common to these 
regions are polar bears, Esquimaux dogs, 
whales, wolves, and Arctic hares. These 
latter are a little bigger than a rabbit, and 
are perfectly white, except the tips of their 
ears, which are black. 

The Esquimaux dogs are to them what 
the horse is to the farmer here, but they are 
very cruelly treated and poorly fed. They 


44 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


are used to draw the sledges; each dog is 
able to draw 100 pounds, and can travel 
ninety miles a day. In each pack of dogs 
there is a king, or boss. He is usually the 
largest and fiercest of the dogs, and regu¬ 
lates the conduct of the rest of the pack. 
He is never lazy, and sees to it that none of 
the others shirk their work, nor does he 
allow them to do unnecessary fighting 
among themselves. 

The snow in the Arctic regions is injurious 
to the eyes, it is so white and glistening. 
Sometimes it is tinged green, red, or given a 
darker hue. This is supposed to be due to the 
dust from meteors, that burn up in the air, 
or else to a microscopic plant that is some¬ 
times very plentiful in snow. 

In the regions near the north pole they 
have a long night in winter, explorers hav¬ 
ing often to endure a night three months 
long at that time. How dreary it must be! 


OP SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


45 


XVII. HOW FOOD IS DIGESTED. 

When food is taken into the mouth we 
set the mill, our teeth, at work to grind it 
up. Food should be well masticated, and 
the motion of the jaws causes the saliva 
to flow freely into the mouth, to be mixed 
with the food. The saliva also tends to 
change the starchy matter in the food (as 
in bread and potatoes), into a grape sugar, 
which is nutritious. We swallow, and the 
food now goes down through a tube called 
•the oesophagus, and meanwhile a little valve 
covers up the windpipe so that no food shall 
go down it; if it did we might speak of be¬ 
ing choked. 

When the food has reached the lower end 
of the oesophagus, another little valve opens 
and lets it into the stomach. This is a sac 
or large tube, and has glands which secrete 
from the blood and pour into the stomach, a 
fluid called the gastric juice. The food is 
moved around in it, slowly churned if you 
please, for from two to four hours, the gas¬ 
tric juice helping to dissolve it and get it 
ready to be used by the blood. Then an- 


46 THE teachers’ manual 

other valve opens and the food passes into 
a tube, which is a part of the intestines. 
Here other secretions, including bile, act 
upon it, and complete the digestion. Then 
the more nutritious parts of the food are 
absorbed through the linings of the intes¬ 
tines, go into the veins, and thence to the 
heart. They are needed for the blood, to 
support life and heat, and make good the 
waste that attends every movement of the 
muscles. 

The food not needed passes off through 
the intestines. When a man works hard, 
there is more blood used to repair the waste 
consequent, so more nutriment is needed, 
and he eats more. Fatty matter is used to 
produce heat, and hence the Esquimaux can 
make a fine dinner from tallow candles, 
while the Malay would much prefer fruits. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


47 


XVIII. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Columbus discovered America in 1492 . 
Before this time Vikings,—sea-robbers from 
Norway—are supposed to have visited 
America, but no permanent settlements 
were made, and the existence of the coun¬ 
try was almost forgotten. Columbus is 
therefore credited with the real discovery. 
At this time the European nations were 
just becoming powerful, and were often at 
war with each other. Sailors, especially 
from Spain and Portugal, were making dis¬ 
coveries in other lands, and had but lately 
sailed around Cape Good Hope. 

Columbus was a sailor, and in his own 
mind decided that the world was round, and 
that by sailing west he could reach the East 
Indies. After many discouragements he ob¬ 
tained vessels, and after crossing the Atlan¬ 
tic discovered one of the Bahama Islands. 
Adventurers now flocked to America, the 
coast was explored, and settlements made. 
Among the early explorers were De Soto, 


48 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


who discovered the Mississippi river, and 
Magellan whose expedition was the first to 
sail around the world. 

The first settlement in the United States 
was made by the Spanish, at St. Augustine, 
Florida. The Dutch settled in New York, 
and the French in Canada. The two most 
notable English settlements were at James¬ 
town, Va., (1607), and Plymouth, Mass., 
(1620). The settlers at Jamestown came 
over to find riches; the Pilgrims to have 
civil and religious liberty. 

The colonists of America, as a rule, were a 
bold hardy people, who were not afraid of 
work, and loved freedom. Their number 
increased rapidly, although they had many 
terrible wars with the Indians. Many times 
the English colonies in the United States 
had wars with the French colonists in Can¬ 
ada, because France and England would be 
at war. By the time of the Revolution, 
when freedom from English interference 
was secured, the greater part of the country 
east of the Alleghany Mountains was set¬ 
tled; west of them was as yet little explored 
or settled. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


49 


XIX. INDIAN CUSTOMS. 

At the time of the American colonies, the 
Iroquois were one of the most powerful In¬ 
dian nations, and*the customs we speak of 
here belonged either to them or to the 
Hurons. The customs of other tribes were 
but little different. The staple food of the 
Indians was corn cooked in a variety of 
ways; it was ground by pounding in huge 
mortars of wood. Their dress was of skins 
cured by smoking, and was sometimes dec¬ 
orated with colored figures or other devices. 
When in full dress they were painted, using 
ochre, white clay, soot, or the juices of 
berries. 

Their money was wampum. This consists 
of beads made from certain shells; their 
manufacture took much time, but the Indian 
seldom valued time. In a council between 
nations or tribes, the treaties were ratified 
by smoking the pipe of peace and exchang¬ 
ing strings of wampum. 

The women were ill-treated; they carried 
the burdens and performed the work, such 
as cultivating the corn, and tanning the 
4 


50 THE TEACHERS' MANUAL. 

hides; polygamy was exceptional. The 
women, in time of war, were more cruel 
and ferocious than the men. Very few 
tribes burnt or otherwise tortured women 
taken as prisoners of war, although they 
often did the men. When a young woman 
was married, the other women gave her 
wood enough to last a year. 

The Indians were desperate gamblers, and 
often staked and lost their all,—ornaments, 
weapons, clothing and wives. The Indian 
doctor used but few remedies. He would 
make a great noise, beating and shaking the 
patient; then biting him, the doctor would 
display a piece of wood, bone or iron, which 
he had ingeniously hidden in his mouth. 
This he declared to be the cause of the sick¬ 
ness. Murder was generally atoned for by 
presents to the victim’s relatives, the mur¬ 
der of a woman demanding more presents 
than the killing of a man. Witchcraft was 
believed in to an excessive degree. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES 


51 


XX. THE GEOLOGICAL AGES. 


SECTION OF THE PALEOZOIC ROCKS IN THE 
MISSISSIPPI BASIN. 


Permian. 


Coal measures. 


Coal conglomerate. 
Sub-carboniferous lime¬ 
stone. 

Sub-carboniferous sand¬ 
stone. 

Black shale. 


Cliff limestone. 


Blue limestone and shale. 
Trenton limestone. 

Galena limestone. 

Black river limestone. 
Lower magnesian lime¬ 
stone— (calcif erous). 

Potsdam sandstone. 


Fig. 18. 

The above shows the character of the rocks deposited dar¬ 
ing the three mentioned ages in the Mississippi basin. The 
character and thickness of the rocks deposited vary with the 
locality. (See Dana’s Geology.) 

The earth has cooled from a molten mass 
to its present state. By means of fossil 
forms found in the rocks, the time since the 
crust was formed until now has been di- 









































52 THE teachers’ manual 

vided into seven geological ages, according 
to the existing life, and rock deposits made. 

Archean time, or age, embraces all the 
time from the first formation of the earth’s 
crust, until the time the first determinate 
fossils were formed. Probably however, 
minute animals and some of the lowest 
plants, as sea-weeds, existed in the latter 
part of this age. 

Silurian Age, or Age of Invertebrates. 
The lower forms of life were now quite 
numerous. The highest forms were fishes, 
of which there were few. Mollusks now 
multiplied rapidly; no flowering plants as 
yet existed. 

Devonian Age, or Age of Fishes. Large 
fishes, including many sharks, inhabited the 
seas, in great multitudes. The forests were 
composed of trees very dissimilar to those 
of the present day. The waters were grad¬ 
ually retreating, preparing more of the con¬ 
tinents yet to be occupied by the coming 
man* Figure 19 represents some creatures 
of this age. 

Carboniferous Age, or Age of Coal. Dur¬ 
ing this age coal was formed. There was a 
very dense growth of ferns, trees and other 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


53 


plants. Volcanic agency alternately ele¬ 
vated and depressed the land, so that at 
times certain portions would be under the 
ocean and at other times above it. The 
climate was very warm, vegetation grew 
very rank, while reptiles and fishes were the 
highest forms of animal life. This age was 
closed by great disturbances of the earth’s 
crust, during which the Appalachian Moun¬ 
tains were formed. 

Reptilian Age, so called because great 
reptiles were numerous, far exceeding in 
numbers and proportions any that now ex¬ 
ist; at the close of this epoch many of these 
species became extinct. 

Mammallian, or Tertiary Age. Whales 
first appeared at this time; also orohippus, 
of the horse tribe, not larger than a small 
sized dog, having four usable toes instead of 
one. Orohippus represents the supposed 
ancestral forms of the modern horse. The 
Rocky and the Himalaya Mountains then 
received a large part of their present ele¬ 
vation. 

Quaternary Age. During the first part 
of this age occurred the Glacial period, 
when huge masses of ice drifted over the 


54 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


northern states, and left the boulders we 
now find. After the Glacial period passed 
away, the climate became warm again. 
Mastodons and other large animals inhab¬ 
ited the earth, many of which no longer 
exist. Man, the highest type of life on the 
earth, was created. During the preceding 
years, estimated by some at twenty millions, 
the earth was being prepared for his use. 


XXI. RAILWAY BUILDING. 

When a route for a railroad is being con¬ 
sidered, men travel over the country, along 
which the proposed railway is to pass, and 
note the advantages and disadvantages of 
the route. Then civil engineers, who make 
railroad construction their business, make a 
preliminary survey. They lay out and note 
the general course of the road, and take ele¬ 
vations (usually) every 100 feet. They use 
a transit to note the course, keep the line 
straight, or lay out the curves correctly. 
The elevation of the points selected are 
taken with a level. Both level and transit 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


55 


are provided with telescopes. These are the 
two principal instruments used by engineers, 
and cost about $150 apiece. From memo¬ 
randa taken in the preliminary survey, esti¬ 
mates of the cost of grading and bridges 
can be made. Probably two or three routes 
are thus surveyed, to see which will be the 
cheapest to construct. 

When the route is decided upon, it is sur¬ 
veyed very carefully. Accurate account is 
kept of the height every 100 feet along it, or 
less if the ground is very rough. Stakes are 
set to guide future work. All curves are 
carefully laid out by certain formulas of 
calculation. A map of the route is made, 
and a careful account is kept of every stake 
set, noting the distance from the preceding 
one, the elevation, etc. 

From this survey, the grades are deter¬ 
mined, in ordinary cases the rise not to ex¬ 
ceed one foot in one hundred. Then engin¬ 
eers are sent out to set stakes every 100 feet, 
on quite level ground, or closer, if the ground 
is rough (ordinary practice). On these stakes 
are marked the amount of “cut” or “fill” 
necessary to make the required elevation. 
Computations are made and stakes set to 


56 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


show the width of the grade or cut. An 
embankment is usually fourteen feet wide 
on top, and two or three feet wider at the 
bottom for each foot in height of the em¬ 
bankment. 

Cuts are made on much the same principle 
as embankments, the track bed being four¬ 
teen feet wide, then space on each side 
(usually) for ditches, and then arranged to 
give the necessary slope to the sides. Men 
and teams now begin the grading, which, 
when done, is approved by the engineers. 
The graders leave spaces for bridges or cul¬ 
verts, at rivers and ravines. The track is 
now placed in position; the ties and rails 
are sometimes laid by machinery. 


XXII. TOBACCO. 

The tobacco plant, whose leaves make the 
tobacco of commerce, is of American origin. 
It was introduced into Europe by Sir Walter 
Raleigh, of whom it is said, that the first 
time his servant found him smoking, he sup¬ 
posed him on fire, and threw a pail of water 
over him. 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


57 


There is much that is poisonous in to¬ 
bacco, and only two animals that will eat 
the leaf—viz: the tobacco worm, and the 
African rock-goat, both disgusting creatures. 
The poison in tobacco is very strong. If 
you wish to see the poisonous empryeumatic 
oil, smoke a cigar so that the smoke will 
pass through water; the oil will rise to the 
surface of the water. If a leaf of tobacco 
is moistened and placed under the armpit, 
it will often occasion vomiting and violent 
sickness. 

Man has great powers of resistance; never¬ 
theless, the poison, if taken by him, operates, 
slowly it may be, yet surely. 

Not only so, but tobacco is often adult¬ 
erated by such substances as j^ellow ochre, 
powdered glass, etc. Many cigarettes are 
made from stubs of cigars picked up in the 
streets. Chewing is the most harmful 
method of use, as the vegetable poisons are 
more readily obtained in this way, and they 
are almost as deadly as prussic acid. Not 
only so, but the habit is disgusting. 

You can seldom persuade a man that to¬ 
bacco is injurious to him, as its effects are to 
a large extent upon the nervous system. A 


58 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


man does not notice it if his brain is more 
torpid than before, nor does he feel the 
effects of the poisons until they show them¬ 
selves in some weakness or disease. Men 
that use tobacco often hasten the decay of 
their teeth; and often partially destroy their 
taste, causing them to desire their food more 
highly seasoned. Dullness of vision, deaf¬ 
ness, and insanity, are sometimes the result 
of its use. The memory is noticeably im¬ 
paired, and the huskiness of the mouth that 
follows this habit, often leads to drinking 
intoxicants. The using of tobacco is a habit 
easily contracted, but exceedingly difficult 
to get rid of. 


XXm. MONKEYS. 

There is a legend among the Arabs that 
the ancestors of the monkeys were the men 
of a certain village, who were changed into 
monkeys because they worked on the Sab¬ 
bath day. The early Egyptians believed 
that some monkeys were expert in writing, 
so they took those into the temples, cared 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


59 


for them, worshipped them, and embalmed 
them after death. The privileged ones, on 
first being taken into the temple, were 
handed a slate and pencil and requested to 
write; of course the grinning monkey would 
make marks, and these were supposed to be 
the characters of some language. 

Apes are found in every continent except 
Australia, but always in warm regions. 
The only troop in Europe is cared for by the 
garrison at Gibraltar. The oldest and 
strongest male in a troop of monkeys de¬ 
clares himself chief, and fights the others 
until they submit. He then watches over 
the rest of the troop, careful for their secur¬ 
ity and welfare. 

Monkeys usually sleep on the summits of 
rocks if possible, go to bed early and get up 
late. Their first business in the morning is 
to dry the dew off their hair. Then they 
breakfast. They eat fruits, seeds, roots, 
leaves, insects, young birds, etc. They very 
much like to eat the growing crop of the 
Arab farmer. 

The mother monkey watches over a sick 
child with the utmost care and anxiety; 
if it dies she is greatly distressed, and often 


60 THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 

herself dies of grief. Among other animals 
it is only the mother which will risk death 
to rescue a child in danger, but the male 
monkeys often do so. 

Apes are generally very fond of liquor, 
and if they can get it, they act as foolish as 
many men—that is, they drink it. They 
like very much to imitate the actions of 
men, and being easily tamed, make interest¬ 
ing pets. 


XXIV. BRIEF OUTLINE OF EARLY 
ENGLISH HISTORY. 

England was inhabited by barbarous 
tribes, and little by the civilized nations, 
until the time of Christ. Fifty-five years 
before the Christian era, the Romans began 
the conquest of England, but not of Scot¬ 
land nor Wales. Four hundred and fifty 
years afterward, on account of the increas¬ 
ing weakness of the Roman Empire, its 
troops were withdrawn, and the former own¬ 
ers reoccupied it. But after a time certain 
piratical German tribes came over, and by 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


61 


830 A. D., had completed the conquest. 
These were the Angles and Saxons, and 
thence comes the origin of the compound 
term, Anglo-Saxon. 

Afterwards the Danes, at that time sub¬ 
sisting to a large extent by piracy, came 
over in large numbers, and they, in their 
turn, were conquerors. The good King 
Alfred lived at this time, and fought bravely 
for his country. He was a learned man. 
He used candles to measure time, as there 
were no clocks at that day. By trying them 
he found how long a candle would burn, 
and thus calculated the time. 

In 1066 a French nobleman, (afterwards 
called William the Conqueror,) sailed across 
the channel, defeated the army that opposed 
him, and took possession of England. He 
divided the land into 60,000 estates, and 
gave them to his soldiers; and in order to 
hold the country in subjection, they built 
the castles in England, of which we read 
so much. 

England at that time had little more pop¬ 
ulation than Iowa has now, (1885). In 1233, 
Edward I conquered Wales and added it to 
his dominion, and since that time, the eldest 


62 THE teachers’ manual 

son of the king or queen of England has 
been called the Prince of Wales. 

As yet the country was not what we 
should call a civilized nation. The people 
generally slept on straw, and lived in houses 
almost as full of smoke as an Esquimaux 
tent is to-day. Very few of England’s great 
men had yet lived. There were none of the 
modern improvements and inventions, as 
steam engines, etc. Only a small part of 
the people had any education, and the gov¬ 
ernment was an absolute monarchy. They 
were chiefly interested in all that pertained 
to war. 


XXY. THE PEOPLE OF AFRICA. 

There are many Arabs in the north part, 
Europeans in Egypt and on the coasts at the 
southern end, but the greater part of Africa 
is occupied by negroes. Many of these live 
by trading; the Europeans are mostly colo¬ 
nists, missionaries or merchants. 

The negroes generally live in tribes, each 
of which has a chief, who is either elected, 
or inherits the supreme authority, as the 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


63 


custom may be in that particular tribe. 
Usually they live a savage life, caring little 
for their friends, often engaged in war, and 
carrying away and selling as slaves the 
women and children of conquered tribes. 
A very few tribes in the interior are can¬ 
nibals. 

Some of the people are frank and hospita¬ 
ble, others will not even allow a traveler to 
go through their country unless he pays for 
the privilege in calico, beads, oxen or ele¬ 
phant tusks. These articles are used there 
instead of money, and travellers provide 
themselves well with calico and beads 
before they begin a journey into the in¬ 
terior. 

The weapons used are usually spears and 
arrows. They have very curious supersti¬ 
tions about witches and spirits; and there 
are men who call themselves rain doctors, 
who pretend to be able to bring rain in dry 
weather. Some believe that when a man 
dies, that is the last of him; others believe 
that his spirit enters certain animals. 

The natives are very fond of music, and it 
is said that the safest way for one to travel 
through Africa would be to play some 


64 THE teachers’ manual 

musical instrument incessantly, as then 
no one would wish to injure him. As the 
music is played they indulge in the most 
ridiculous dances. They have very pecul¬ 
iar modes of salutation. The tribe called 
Balokas, in saluting, throw themselves 
on their backs on the ground and slap 
their sides, uttering the words “Kina Bom¬ 
ba” Livingstone would tell them to stop 
rolling around so, but they thought he was 
dissatisfied, so they tumbled around and 
slapped themselves more vigorously than 
ever. 


5XYI. GLASS. 

Glass was well known to the ancients, as 
the Egyptians were well acquainted with 
the industry of glass blowing over 5,000 
years ago. The Greeks made very fine glass 
vases, and some of these have been discov¬ 
ered among the remains of their cities. 
Glass for windows in private houses did not 
come into use until two hundred years ago, 
and until that time a house with glass win- 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


65 


dows was considered magnificent. Bohemia 
manufactures a great deal of glass of a 
superior quality. 

Glasses, such as are used in telescopes, are 
said to have been made 4,000 years ago, but 
much finer and larger ones are made now. 
Such glasses are called lenses, and are made 
round and almost flat, yet considerably 
thicker in the center, tapering rounding to 
the edges. A lens causes anything to seem 
larger than it really is. Lenses are very 
difficult to make, as they must be entirely 
free from flaws. Sometimes years are spent 
to make one perfect lens of large size, and 
the largest yet made is but three feet in 
diameter. 

Glass is made of certain kinds of sand 
(silicates) and soda, mixed with various 
other ingredients. Certain substances are 
put in to give it the desired color. Most 
kinds of glass are formed by heating the 
materials very hot, when it is blown and 
molded, but it would require much space 
to explain it. Plate glass is cast in a long, 
wide, and shallow cast iron dish. All glass is 
annealed, as otherwise it would be too 
brittle. When the glass is melted it can be 


66 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


made into almost any desired shape, even be 
drawn out into threads several hundred feet 
long. 

In making a drinking glass, the melted 
material is pressed into the mould by an 
iron plunger that is of the shape desired for 
the inside of the glass. Glass is used mostly 
for bottles, dishes, windows, and scientific 
instruments. Some buildings, such as are 
used for expositions or large fairs, are made 
of iron frames, with the sides and roof of 
glass. 


XXVII. WHAT MAKES BREAD RISE? 

The expansion of the dough is due to the 
growth and activity of little plants, the 
yeast plants. (See article on ‘‘Protoplasm.’’) 
All plants and animals are composed of very 
small cells, each of which contains a single 
minute drop of protoplasm. The yeast plant 
has no leaves or roots, it is simply an egg- 
shaped cell,—a minute drop of protoplasm 
enclosed in a delicate woody case. These 
plants float in a clear liquid, and we call the 
mixture yeast. 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


67 


You notice the baker puts the yeast into 
the dough, and then sets it in a warm place 
to “rise.” This is done because the yeast 
plant, like many others, grows best when 
warm. If you were watching these plants 
with a good microscope, you would notice 
that many of the larger ones had each a 
small hud growing out on one side. This 
grows rapidly, and at last the least jar sep¬ 
arates it from the parent plant, and we have 
two cells instead of one. This process of 
multiplication proceeds rapidly, and the 
plants are scattered plentifully throughout 
the dough. They derive their sustenance 
from certain substances in the dough. 

In connection with the activity of the 
protoplasm, carbonic acid gas is formed, 
which in its very nature tends to expand. 
Bubbles of this gas increasing in number 
and size, lift up the dough above, and we 
say the bread is rising. The more bubbles 
of gas, the lighter the bread; and the dough 
is baked when light, that it may retain its 
porosity. 

One of the common names for these plants 
is Torula. Beer requires yeast for its man¬ 
ufacture. The fermentation of fruits is 


68 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


started by germs of some kind of Torula 
which may be floating in the air. “Salt 
rising** bread is not made light by yeast 
plants, but by gas generated by chemical 
action. 


XXVIII. MOHAMMED. 

The birth of Mohammed occurred in Mecca 
in the latter part of the sixth century. At 
that time all religions in the surrounding 
countries were weak; the Jewish and Chris¬ 
tian communities were not making much 
advance, while the Arabs were addicted to 
idols, but the latter were strong both physic¬ 
ally and mentally. 

Mohammed travelled much, noticed these 
facts, and when about forty years old began 
advocating a religion whose adherents 
should worship the one God. He did not 
know how to write, but he declared that he 
had received revelations from God, and 
announced himself as God*s prophet. These 
revelations continued for twenty-three 
years, and form the Koran, or Mohammedan 
Bible. 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


69 


Its doctrines include the following: There 
is but one God, and Mohammed is his 
prophet; all men will die at the time 
appointed, whether engaged in battle or not; 
all Mohammedans are equal before God, 
whether white or black; all nations, as far 
as possible, should be required to accept the 
Koran, pay tribute, or be put to the sword; 
slavery is allowed; polygamy is allowed; 
wine drinking is prohibited; every Moham¬ 
medan must, if possible, make one pilgrim¬ 
age to Mecca. Fasting and almsgiving are 
strongly recommended; believers must pray 
five times a day, repeating prescribed words. 
Two angels attend every man; when he 
dies, two black angels come to his grave, 
wake him up, and examine him as to his 
faith. At the day of judgment, all men will 
be required to cross a deep chasm upon a 
bridge as narrow as a knife edge. All true 
believers will cross safely and the others 
will fall off. Paradise is full of sensual 
pleasures. 

Mohammed made only forty converts dur¬ 
ing the first four years, and, being persecuted, 
fled to Medina. The Mohammedans date the 
years from this flight, 622 A. D. Then the 


70 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


faith grew rapidly, Mohammed became a 
ruler, aud after engaging in many maraud¬ 
ing expeditions, he captured Mecca. As his 
strength increased he became warlike and 
cruel. He died in 632 A. D. His followers 
continued the wars. The Turks are the 
most noted Mohammedans of the present 
day. 


XXIX. MUSIC. 

Music is either instrumental or vocal. 
The vocal sounds are produced by the breath 
playing upon the vocal cords, producing 
vibrations and consequently sound. The 
gravest sound that is really musical is caused 
by a body vibrating forty times in a sec¬ 
ond, and the highest note employed in music 
is produced by about 5,000 vibrations a 
second. There are many kinds of musical 
instruments, and every nation delights in 
its own peculiar music. Even the most 
barbarous people like music, and it is 
said that a man could safely travel across 
“The Dark Continent,” if be could play the 
cornet constantly. 

The Chinese music, like its people, is pecu- 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


71 


liar, but the celestials have made a great 
study of it. Persian singers are said to 
make concert tours in China. Music is often 
mentioned in the Bible. The ancient 
Greeks and Romans were not very adept in 
the art, and music as a fine art has origi¬ 
nated within the last five centuries. 

Since the middle of the eighteenth cen¬ 
tury some very noted musicians have de¬ 
lighted the nations. Among these stand 
Mozart, Mendelssohn, Beethoven and Gluck. 
Among the best singers of late years are 
Marie Rosa, Patti and Nilsson. Nearly 
every land has its own national tunes and 
songs. France has the Marseillaise hymn, 
and we have Yankee Doodle , America and the 
Star Spangled Banner . 

Very few people whose voices have been 
properly cultivated, are totally unable to 
sing; children should sing much and natur¬ 
ally. Try to have the voice produce the 
same tone as the instrument near which you 
sing, and keep the mouth well open. When 
studying or walking do not assume a stoop¬ 
ing position, it prevents the free develop¬ 
ment of the lungs. 

Shakspeare says of music, “The man 


72 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 




who hath no music in his soul, who is not 
moved by concord of sweet sounds, is fit for 
treason, stratagem and spoils.” 




OF SCHOOL EXERCISES 


78 


FOSSILS OF THE DEVONIAN AGE. 



Fig. 19 











74 


THE TEACHERS' MANUAL 


XXX. COAL. 

During the carboniferous age, many thous¬ 
ands of years before the first man lived, the 
world was not in a proper condition to sup¬ 
port the higher forms of animal life. The 
air contained much carbonic acid gas, 
which, while excellent food for most plants, 
is very unsuitable for animals. The climate 
was much warmer than at present, and 
there was very rank vegetation. Reptiles 
were the highest in the scale of animal 
life. 

The trees, ferns and other plants grew 
rapidly, and the falling trees and leaves 
formed compact and thick accumulations of 
vegetable remains. Volcanic energy would 
alternately heave up portions of the land 
above the surface of the ocean, and after a 
time allow it to subside again. The ocean, 
when overlying the land, made deposits that 
afterward hardened into rock formations. 

With the weight of these deposits and the 
ocean above, decomposition began in the 
masses of vegetable remains. The gases 
generated could not escape, and the whole 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


75 


process resulted in forming the coal we now 
find. Perhaps a mass five feet thick produced 
a layer of coal one foot thick. If you look 
carefully, you will often see traces of woody 
fibres and leaves in the coal. Indeed, the 
kind of trees forming the coal can be deter¬ 
mined. Sometimes logs fifty feet long are 
found in sand-stone strata near the coal beds. 
Coal beds are from one inch to forty feet 
thick, hut they usually range from two to 
eight feet. 

The kind of coal that burns with little 
flame is called anthracite, and that burning 
with a bright yellow flame is bituminous. 

At the time the future fuel was being 
made, this country was in all probability a 
flat area; for the Rocky, and some other 
ranges of mountains, had not yet been up- 
heaved, as they afterward were, by violent 
volcanic action. 

Thus the Almighty stored away fuel for 
man’s use, long before man was created. 
With the destruction of forests, which seem 
to stand in the way of civilization, coal has 
become the chief reliance for steam engines; 
and thus it produces power to do useful 
work. Pennsylvania produces a great deal 


76 THE TEACHERS 7 MANUAL 

of coal; the chief beds in Iowa are along 
the Des Moines river. 


XXXI. DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

HORSES. 

The ancestors of the present horse were 
in existence long before the time of man, 
many, many thousands of years ago. They 
were much smaller, and had four usable 
toes instead of one. They used to roam over 
America, but for some unknown reason 
became extinct. Afterward horses were 
brought here from Europe. The wild horses 
in South America are descendants of those 
brought from Europe since Columbus dis¬ 
covered our continent. Horses were, in 
ancient times, used more for riding and 
drawing war chariots, than for agricultural 
purposes. 

CATTLE. 

It is uncertain whether or not our domes¬ 
tic cattle are derived from any kind of cattle 
now found in a wild state. The Hungarians 
have a peculiar blueish colored cattle, and a 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


77 


breed found elsewhere are all of a pure 
white color. Cattle were much esteemed as 
property during the warlike ages, for they 
could be driven away before an advancing 
army. 

HOGS. 

The hog was very highly valued by the 
ancients. Pork is not healthy food in trop¬ 
ical countries, and for this reason probably, 
the eating of it was frequently forbidden. 
The laws of Moses enjoined entire absti¬ 
nence from this food. The hog in his natural 
state is not a filthy animal, but confinement 
often makes him so. It is estimated that in 
the United States there are 2,500,000 of 
them. 

SHEEP. 

Sheep have always been held in high re¬ 
pute, and their increase fostered on account 
of their pelts, wool, and milk, and as a 
food supply. Sheep thrive best on elevated 
lands. Among the Pyrennees mountains 
large flocks of them are protected from 
wolves by a few well trained dogs. These 
dogs are never allowed to eat meat, but are 
fed with bread and milk. The Rocky moun¬ 
tain sheep are wild, and live among the 


78 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


ranges indicated by their name. Domestic 
sheep were first brought to our country in 
1609, from England. 


XXXII. THE MOON. 

The moon has about one-fourth the diam¬ 
eter of the earth, and A part of its mass. 
It is about 240,000 miles away; that is, if a 
railway train, moving at the rate of forty 
miles an hour, day and night, were to start 
from the earth on January 1, it would reach 
the moon some time in September. The 
moon revolves around the earth once in 
27.32 days, but as the earth is at the same 
time going around the sun, the lunar month 
is 29.53 days. The moon reflects sunlight, 
and as the sun’s rays can strike on but one- 
half of the moon at any one time, some¬ 
times we have the illuminated side turned 
toward us and sometimes not. If we see 
the whole of the illuminated part, we say it 
is full moon, while in a new moon we see 
but a small portion of it. 

As the moon rotates on its own axis in 
exactly the same time as it revolves around 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


79 


the earth, we never see but one certain side 
of the moon. We have no reason to sup¬ 
pose that any one ever saw the other side. 
The moon is a barren waste, whose surface 
is colder than we can imagine; its surface is 
full of caverns and pits, and we can see the 
mountains with the naked eye. Some of 
the mountain peaks are from one to three 
miles high. The moon has no atmosphere, 
no oceans, clouds, plants nor animals. 

The earth, intercepting the sunlight, casts 
a long shadow into space. If the moon 
enters this shadow, it has little or no sun¬ 
light to reflect, and so looks dark, and we 
say the moon is eclipsed. In a partial 
eclipse, only a portion of the moon goes into 
the earth’s shadow. In a solar eclipse, the 
moon passes between the earth and the sun, 
thus preventing our seeing a part or the 
whole of the sun, and so this is called an 
eclipse of the sun. But very seldom is the 
whole sun hidden by the moon. 


80 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


XXXIII. CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 

In 1519, the Spaniards under Cortez con¬ 
quered Mexico. Until that time Mexico 
was unexplored by Europeans. It was in¬ 
habited by a people that were very dissim¬ 
ilar to the northern Indians. They were 
partially civilized, had fine cities, good laws 
and a well ordered government. Their ruler 
was called the Montezuma; he was an abso¬ 
lute monarch, and was originally selected 
from the nobility. 

Among their laws was one punishing 
drunkenness in youth as a capital crime, 
but drinking was allowed to men seventy 
years old. The people were simple in dress, 
fond of ornament, courteous and polished. 
They transmitted news rapidly by couriers 
relieved every six miles, sometimes thus 
carrying dispatches 300 miles in a day. 
They had observed the number of days in a 
year, and had divided them into eighteen 
months of twenty days each, leaving five 
auxiliary days. 

Their religious worship was sincere. They 
worshipped one supreme deity, thirteen 


OP SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


81 


principal ones, and several hundred inferior 
ones. Human sacrifices had become very 
frequent; it is thought that some days 
thousands of people were thus put to death. 
The victims were usually prisoners of war, 
and after being slain on the altar, were eaten 
by the people; indeed, human flesh was a 
common delicacy. This was the great blot 
on their civilization. 

They had a well-drilled Soldiery, but knew 
nothing of gunpowder, nor horses. Conse¬ 
quently, they at first thought that the Span¬ 
iards, with their pale faces and big ships, 
were gods. They were terrified at the sight 
of. horses, and the guns, in their opinion, 
vomited forth thunder and lightning. This 
terror enabled a comparatively small num¬ 
ber of Spaniards, led by the audacious Cor¬ 
tez, to make an easy conquest of the country. 
Mexico remained a Spanish possession until 
1821, when it became independent. 


6 


82 


THE TEACHERS 7 MANUAL 


XXXIV. ARCTIC DISCOVERY. 

The Northmen, centuries ago, were ven¬ 
turesome sailors, but their voyages in the 
Arctic seas resulted in nothing important 
to science. The two great aims of Arctic 
discoverers since then have been to find a 
water route through the Arctic regions, and 
to explore the earth’s surface near the north 
pole. The explorations around the south 
pole have been comparatively unimportant. 
Davis, Hudson and Baffin were among the 
early Arctic explorers, and certain bodies of 
water have received their names. Lieut. 
Parry made several voyages worthy of 
mention. 

In 1845, Sir John Franklin sailed with two 
ships, the Erebus and Terror; but for years 
no tidings of them were received. Several 
expeditions were sent in search, but the only 
result was to find a few of the dead bodies, 
for their ships had been destroyed by the 
ice, and the men had died from cold and 
starvation. Dr. Kane conducted an expedi¬ 
tion in 1853, which, while it did not go as 
far north as some others, yet was of more 
value to science than any preceding one. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


83 


In 1861, Dr. Hayes reached a very high 
latitude, 85 deg., 35 min., north latitude, 70 
deg., 30 min., W. longitude. (See map.) 

In 1871, Capt. Hall, also an American, set 
out toward the pole, and penetrated fifty 
miles further north than Dr. Hayes. 

The proprietor of the New York Herald , 
in 1871, sent out the ill-fated Jeannette ex¬ 
pedition, commanded by Lieut. De Long. 
The ship, although built very strong, was 
crushed by the ice; the boats in which the 
men took refuge were separated and more 
than one-half of the sailors died from cold 
and hunger, while one boat load has never 
been heard of since. 

The United States government, in 1881, 
sent out an expedition commanded by Lieut. 
Greely. They reached the highest latitude 
yet attained, 83 deg., 24 min., north. They 
found some vegetation and animals existing 
even there. Greely’s men experienced the 
lowest temperature yet recorded, 62J deg. 
below zero. Their ship was destroyed, and 
many lost their lives before a rescuing party 
found them. So great became their hunger 
that they ate the dead bodies of some of 
their comrades. 


84 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


XXXV. THE UNITED STATES ARMY. 

The company is the unit for instruction 
and discipline, and has in the infantry a 
total of fifty-three men; but the number in 
a company may be increased in time of war. 
The company is commanded by a captain 
who has two lieutenants to assist him. The 
first sergeant calls the roll; there are four 
other sergeants. Next lower in rank are 
the four corporals, and then the privates. 
Orders are often given on the bugle, dif¬ 
ferent short tunes meaning certain orders; 
each company has two musicians. Ten or 
twelve companies, united under the com¬ 
mand of a colonel, constitute a regiment; a 
less number of companies united constitute 
a battallion. Regiments are organized into 
brigades and these into divisions under the 
command of generals. 

Besides the infantry, there are also squad¬ 
rons of cavalry, batteries of artillery, and 
companies of engineers. The mass of a 
modern army is infantry, one-fourth to one- 
tenth being cavalry, and ordinarily two can¬ 
non, (with about twenty-five men to each) 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


85 


for every 1,000 men. A division usually in¬ 
cludes a company of engineers who march 
in advance to clear the roads, repair bridges, 
etc. 

Our regular army is composed of twenty- 
five regiments of infantry, ten of cavalry, 
five of artillery, and a battallion of en¬ 
gineers. The total number, by law, not to 
exceed 25,000 men. 

The pay of private soldiers is at first $13 
per month, but longer service increases the 
pay. This is, of course, in addition to nec¬ 
essary food and clothing. Officers receive 
greater pay. The supplies are distributed 
by distinct departments, principally the 
commissaries and the quartermaster’s. It 
requires a vast amount of work to supply 
a large army when in the field; for they re¬ 
quire many other supplies besides food, 
clothing, arms, ammunition and extra 
horses. The Army of the Potomac, at the 
commencement of the Wilderness cam¬ 
paign, was followed by 4,300 wagons, 835 
ambulances, and 52,473 horses and mules. 

The infantry carry rifles, the artillery 
men carry sabres, as do also the cavalry; 
all commissioned officers carry swords. The 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


lowest commissioned officers have the rank 
of second lieutenant. Every soldier must 
obey without question the commands of 
his superior officers, nor dare he treat them 
in the least disrespectfully. 

Ordinarily all enlistments are voluntary 
in the United States, but in Germany, 
France and Russia, the armies are recruited 
by conscription. Russia has a standing 
army of 780,000, the largest in the world, 
while our army has less than 25,000 men. 
In the United States, in case of war, all 
able-bodied males between the ages of 
eighteen and forty-five, are liable to mil¬ 
itary duty. Drafting, one form of conscrip¬ 
tion, was resorted to during the civil war. 


XXXVI. THE OPOSSUM. 

The common opossum is a rat-like animal 
found in our southern states; it is of a dusky 
brown color, about twenty inches long, 
with a tail fifteen inches in addition. The 
hair is long, soft and woolly. The opossum 
moves around mostly at night, and lives on 
grain, nuts, birds and eggs, mice, etc. They 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


87 


travel slowly on the ground, but if alarmed 
betake themselves to trees, and there they 
can travel very fast. Their tails are stout 
as well as long, and the opossums often hang 
from trees by means of them. 

They are marsupials, and the young are 
carried in the pouch for several weeks. 
Their nests are made of dried grass under a 
bush or root. Their flesh is considered very 
fine eating. When an opossum is caught, it 
feigns death, and will then often bear con¬ 
siderable torture without showing a sign of 
life, but all the time watching an oppor¬ 
tunity to bite or escape. This is the origin 
of the term “ playing ’possum.” 


XXXVII. NERVES. 

Suppose you reach out your hand and 
touch a desk. You feel that your hand has 
come in contact with something hard. If it 
had been a hot stove that you touched, you 
would have felt it was hot. What is it that 
tells you the desk is hard or the stove warm? 
If you were to cut open your hand you 
would find what looks like gray strings, but 



88 THE teachers’ manual 

are called nerves. These act like telegraph 
wires to send word to your brain about the 
desk or stove. You want to take your hand 
off the desk, and send word, quick as can be, 
over other of these nerves, to take your 
hand away. The nerves cause the muscles 
to work, and your hand comes away. 

How these messages are sent, or how the 
nerves carry them and make the muscles 
act, no one knows but God, who planned 
them. But we do know that it is the nerves 
that do the work, for if we cut the nerves, 
say those that go to the thumb, we shall not 
have any feeling in that thumb or be able 
to use it at all. When the nerves come out 
to the skin, they divide up so much that 
they seem to be a continual fine net-work. 
If you should doubt this, you can easily 
prove it by trying to stick a needle in your 
hand, for you will be sure to feel it. The 
two kinds of nerves always go together, 
those that carry news, and those that carry 
orders. 

Some of the nerves go to the eyes, and 
these make it possible for us to see, for they 
carry word of the impressions they obtain 
from the light falling upon them. Other 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


89 


nerves run from the brain to the ears, and 
with these we hear. And so others go to 
the mouth, nose and the other parts of the 
body. 


XXXVIII. A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF MOD¬ 
ERN ENGLISH HISTORY. 

1200-1885. 

In 1215, the people forced King John to 
grant them certain rights, and to arrange it 
so that no other king after him could tyran¬ 
nize over them. The document stating this 
was called the Magna Charta. About this 
time the English Parliament assumed its 
present form. England had long, bloody 
wars with France, and at last lost nearly all 
her possessions there. In 1452 began a civil 
war, the War of the Roses, a contest for the 
throne waged by two royal families, by 
which the country was greatly injured. 
There were also wars with Scotland, which 
fought for its freedom, led by Bruce and 
others. 

England was under Roman Catholic rule, 
but the clergy were almost the only edu- 



90 THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 

cated people until this time. Now learning 
began to revive, and the English language 
was developing into its present form. Stand¬ 
ing armies became common. America was 
discovered. In 1558, Queen Elizabeth was 
crowned. She imprisoned and beheaded 
Mary, Queen of the Scots, who claimed her 
throne. Spain sent “the invincible Armada ” 
to conquer England. It carried a large 
army in many ships, but by the aid of a 
great storm it was defeated. 

In 1642, Charles I, then reigning, proved 
tyrannical, and a revolution took place in 
which Cromwell led and was victorious. 
The monarchy was re-established soon after 
Cromwell’s death. 

Again, in 1688, King James was not liked, 
and the people invited a prince of Holland, 
William III, to come and take the throne, 
which he did without much blood-shed. 

In 1714 the present royal family came to 
the throne. 

During the reign of George III, the Amer¬ 
ican revolution took place. Wars with 
France were frequent. India was conquered 
by England. In the early part of this cen¬ 
tury, England was at war with the great 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


91 


Napoleon, but his power was broken at the 
battle of Waterloo (1815). We also had 
another war with England in 1812-15. 

England has been engaged in several wars 
since then, to obtain or protect her foreign 
possessions. Now Victoria reigns, England 
has a liberal government), and is one of the 
foremost nations of the world, in learning 
and in power. 


XXXIX. SPONGES. 

The sponges of commerce are obtained 
chiefly from the Bahama Islands and the 
Mediterranean Sea. The structure that we 
call a sponge is made by an aggregation of 
living cells, and is built out of what the 
cells have secreted from the sea-water. 
These cells live in the pores of the piece, of 
sponge. They are very small, and are 
unable to move about. Through the smaller 
pores of the sponge water enters, and is ex¬ 
pelled through the larger orifices. Micro¬ 
scopic hair-like attachments, called cilia, 
which are continually in rapid motion, keep 



92 THE teachers’ manual 

up this circulation of water. As the water 
goes past, each cell obtains food and air 
from it. 

In the words of Prof. Huxley: “The sponge 
represents a kind of sub-aqueous city, where 
the people are arranged about the streets 
and roads in such a manner that each can 
easily appropriate his food from the water 
as it passes by.” 

Many varieties are largely made up of 
lime or glassy matter, and are very beautiful. 

The growth of a sponge requires a long 
period of time. The one you buy at the 
store for a dime, probably represents the 
result of growth during a great number of 
years. 

Most of the sponges are obtained by div¬ 
ing, to which men are trained from child¬ 
hood in the Greek islands. Some sponges 
are brought up from the bottom of the sea 
by means of long hooks. They are found 
adhering to rocks or hard surfaces of any 
kind, to which they have grown. 

The sponges from the Mediterranean Sea 
are the finer kind; when obtained, they are 
washed several times in water and twice in 
certain diluted acids, to cleanse them and 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


93 


to take out the limy matters. The coarser 
sponges come from the Bahamas. After 
being obtained, these are buried in dry sand 
until the animal matter is entirely decom¬ 
posed. They are then exposed in wire cages 
to the action of the waves for cleansing. 


XL. FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE. 

Florence Nightingale is not noted for 
having been a great ruler and waging wars 
that destroyed the lives of men, making 
thousands suffer. No, she was “only a 
woman,” and yet her name is spoken with 
reverence. She was born in 1823, and in a 
wealthy family in England, but she did not 
wish to be simply a lady of fashion,—her 
object was to do good in the world. She 
obtained a good education first; that is a 
good plan for any one to follow. Then she 
began to take care of sick people, helping 
them to keep cheerful and get well. 

At length there was a terrible war with 
Russia, in which England was engaged, 
known as the Crimean war, and there were 



94 THE teachers’ manual 

not enough nurses to care for the sick and 
wounded soldiers. About 100 women, many 
of them rich persons, went to Turkey as 
nurses, and Florence Nightingale was ap¬ 
pointed their superintendent. The accom¬ 
modations for sick soldiers were sadly defi¬ 
cient, while many suffered and died for lack 
of medical attendance. But she went to 
work to do the best she could, and within 
six weeks those women were caring for 
thousands of sick and wounded men. 

The soldiers thought very highly of her, 
for she always tried to make things pleasant 
for them. At last she worked so hard that 
her own health gave way, and she had to 
return to England. 

The Queen sent her a letter of thanks and 
a beautiful jewel, but her most valued gem 
was the love and thankfulness of the sol¬ 
diers, whose lives she had helped to save. 
They made a penny contribution to erect a 
statue in her honor, but she positively de¬ 
clined the distinction. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


95 


XU. ARTILLERY. 

The earliest instrument used to throw 
missiles was the sling. We often read of it 
in the Bible. Later on leaden bullets 
were used in the sling instead of stones. 
After the sling came the bow. The Greek 
bow was originally made out of two horns of 
a wild goat. The Tartars hold their bows 
vertically, the other nations horizontally. 
The Egyptians were celebrated as archers. 

For breaking down walls the ancients used 
battering rams. These were at first only 
huge beams, carried by the soldiers, and 
thrust against the walls or gates of a city. 
After awhile they supported these beams by 
chains; and then on the principle of the 
swing, they drew the beam back and let it 
go against the wall. Some battering rams 
weighed as much as forty tons, and others 
required over 1,000 men to manage them. 

Machines were made which threw darts 
and,stones, using some elastic substance to 
produce the necessary power. Men covered 
themselves with armor of brass and leather, 
and built castles for protection. Battle 


96 THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 

axes and many kinds of swords were in 
use. 

Gunpowder was invented by the Chinese, 
and is made of saltpeter, charcoal and sul¬ 
phur. It was first used by European na¬ 
tions about 1300 A. D. The fortress of Gib¬ 
raltar was one of the first places in Europe 
which was taken by means of cannon. Soon 
large cannon began to be made, and they 
have been used in all European wars 
since. No ordinary wall can resist cannon 
shot. 

The largest guns are the Krupp guns, made 
in Germany; some of them can throw a ball 
weighing one ton. Canister shot consists of 
a great many bullets placed in a can. This 
is fired from a cannon and bursted, the bul¬ 
lets being scattered in every direction. It 
is much used in battle. Sometimes red hot 
shot are fired into a besieged town to set it 
on fire. A shell is a hollow ball of iron, and 
contains gunpowder. A fuse is lighted at 
the firing of the gun, and the shell bursts 
about the time it reaches the enemy, scat¬ 
tering its death-dealing fragments in every 
direction. 

One of the most notable guns of recent 


I 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 97 

invention is the Gatling gun. The ammuni¬ 
tion, in cartridge form, is fed to it through 
a hopper, and the gun acting on somewhat 
the same plan as a revolver, is able to dis¬ 
charge 1300 shots per minute, and will dis¬ 
able men who are two miles off. By firing 
at an elevation, it will reach them even 
if they are behind intrenchments. The mod¬ 
ern Springfield rifle can be fired ten to twenty 
times a minute, and will disable men at If 
miles. 


7 


98 THE teachers’ manual 


XLII. ENGLISH LITERATURE. 


(Blackboard exercise.) 


POETS. 

Tennyson —1810. 

(In Memoriam. 

•< The Princess. 

(Locksley Hall. 

Longfellow —1807-1882. 

i Evangeline. 

Hiawatha. 

Hyperion (prose romance). 
W hittier— 1808. 

( Barbara Frietchie. 

•< Mand Muller. 

( Ballads of New England. 

DRAMATISTS. 

Shakspeare— 1564-1616. 

'Merchant of Venice. 
Julius Caesar. 

Hamlet. 

Macbeth. 

Midsummer Night’s 
_ Dream. 

Milton— 1608-1674. 

( Comus. 

( Paradise Lost. 

Goldsmith— 1728-1774. 

She Stoops to Conquer. 


HISTORIANS. 

Gibbon-1737-1494. 

Decline and Fall of the 
Roman Empire. 
Macaulay —1800-1859. 
History of England. 
Essays. 

Bancroft— 1800. 
History of the United 
States. 

NOVELISTS. 
Scott— 1771-1832. 
Ivanhoe. 

Lady of the Lake (poem). 
Dickens— 1812-1870. 

( David Copperfield. 

( Dombey and Son. 

Mrs. H. B. Stowe —1812. 
Uncle Tom’s Cabin. 

ESSAYISTS. 
Bacon— 1561-1626. 
Essays. 

History of Henry VIII. 
Addison— 1672-1719. 
Essays. 

Poems. 

Carlyle— 1795-1881. 
History of the French 
Revolution. 

Hero and Hero Worship. 





OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


99 


XLIII. POPULATION OF THE WORLD. 

To illustrate the comparative population 
of the chief countries of the world, construct 
upon the blackboard a circle with a radius 
of one foot, seven inches. The area of this 
circle is to be divided up, approximately, as 
the population of the world is proportioned 
amongst the nations. 

The distances allowed to each nation are 
to be measured upon the circumference of 
the circle, and then radii drawn from the 
center to the points found will, with the 
portion of the circumference, bound the 
desired area. Measure (on the circumfer¬ 
ence as stated) 25 inches for Europe, the 
next 17 inches for Africa, 6 inches for North 
America, 2^ inches for South America, 3| 
inches for Oceanica, and after drawing the 
radii to these points the rest of the area of 
the circle is for Asia, which will thus have a 
little over one-half of all. 

Having now laid off the Grand Divisions, 
and written their names in the areas as¬ 
signed, they are to be divided among the 


100 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


nations, the areas for only the principal 
ones needing to be shown. Measure off 
4J inches of North America to represent the 
United States. Allow in Europe, Russia 6| 
inches, Germany 4 inches; France, Austria, 
Italy and Great Britain, each 3 inches. 
From Asia, allow China 25 inches, India 17 
inches, Japan 4 inches; in Africa, give Egypt 
2 inches. This is, of course, an approxima¬ 
tion; the remainder of the population of 
the several Grand Divisions belong to minor 
nations. 

Note that China and Europe have about 
equal population. Call attention to other 
interesting facts which are thus placed be¬ 
fore them. If convenient, color the differ¬ 
ent areas with colored chalk, or otherwise 
make them easy to distinguish across the 
room. Write the name of each country in 
the space assigned it, and leave on the 
blackboard long enough to impress the de¬ 
sired ideas upon the minds of the pupils. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


101 


XLIY. CHALK. SLATE AND SLATE 
PENCILS. 

Chalk is a rock formation, entirely of ani¬ 
mal origin. It is composed principally of 
shells of minute animals, most of which 
belong to extinct species. So small were 
they, that it is conjectured that often a cubic 
inch of chalk contains the shells of a million 
of them. Chalk is found in large quantities 
along the shores of the North Sea, and on 
each side of the English Channel in England 
and France. It sometimes towers up in 
cliffs over 1,000 feet high. 

It is used very extensively as a marking 
material, and when finely ground it is sold 
under the name of whiting. 

The chalk sold for use in schools is pre¬ 
pared from the chalk formation, in much the 
same manner that lime is made from lime¬ 
stone. It is then ground up and made into 
the required shape. 

Slate is quarried out in large pieces. 
The cutting and trimming is generally done 
by machinery. It is used for table-tops, 
sinks, mantle-pieces, etc., and for these pur- 


102 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


poses is cat into the desired forms by circu¬ 
lar saws. 

Argillaceous, or clay-slate, is the rock used 
for writing slates, and also, as it is fire proof, 
for roofing houses. It is found in many 
places in the United States, and in consider¬ 
able quantities, particularly in Vermont, 
Maine and Pennsylvania. 

By using wide, thin chisels, it may be split 
into thin sheets, and if freshly quarried, 
good slate should split more easily than pine 
timber. 

Slate Pencils are made from the best 
kind of slate rock, and even sometimes from 
it and various other materials ground to¬ 
gether and compressed. The best pencils 
come from Vermont slate; the stone is split 
into slabs, planed, and placed in machines 
that have grooved knives. These cut the 
pencils into the desired shape, and the pieces 
of slate that are left are ground up to be 
made into artificial slate,pencils. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


108 


XLV. THE FIXED STARS. 

All the heavenly bodies, except the plan¬ 
ets and smaller bodies of our solar system, 
are fixed stars. Our sun is a fixed star. 
They all shine by their own light, which 
is due to intense heat. The nearest of 
these stars is 19,000,000,000,000 miles away. 
To illustrate—If a man could fly so fast as 
to go round our world in one second of 
time, it would take him twenty-five years 
to reach the nearest star. 

About 5,000 stars are visible to the naked 
eye, but those that are seen by the telescope 
may be counted by the millions. There are 
supposed to be about 50,000,000 stars in our 
universe. And each of these for aught we 
know, may have planets traveling around 
them, as the earth around the sun, and it 
may be that in these millions, there are 
worlds in some respects like ours. 

Many of the stars are much larger than 
our sun, but their immense distances cause 
them to appear as only points of light. 

The stars give various colored lights; some 
a green, others a red, and some lights of yet 


104 THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 

other colors. Our sun gives a yellow light, 
but we are so accustomed to it, that it is not 
ordinarily noticed. A few stars are much 
brighter at some times than at others; these 
are called variable stars. In a part of them 
the change is perceptible in two or three 
days, but in others it requires years; the 
cause is not known. Probably the star of 
Bethlehem was one of this kind. 

Sometimes there are two stars, which are 
seen with the naked eye as only one star, 
one traveling around the other as a center 
of rotation. Sometimes we find three or 
more very near each other, and these collec¬ 
tions are called triple and multiple stars. 
We can notice clusters of stars, as the 
Pleiades, in which the unassisted sight can 
recognize only six, but a telescope will 
bring 100 of them within the range of our 
vision. On a clear night you can readily 
see the Pleiades. Some of these so called 
fixed stars, are known to be moving in cer¬ 
tain directions, as our sun, which is sup¬ 
posed to be traveling toward the constella¬ 
tion—Hercules. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


105 


XLYI. FREE-HAND DRAWING. 


The student should be provided with slate 
and pencil, or paper with a hhhhhh pencil. 
The drawing may be made upon the black¬ 
board, or the book may be used directly by 
the pupil. Draw first, upon the blackboard, 
a set of parallel straight lines, and require 
the scholars to copy them without measure¬ 
ment or ruling. When these are well done, 
have others drawn at various angles, and 
making various figures such as triangles in 
squares, pentagons, etc. 



Fig. 21. 

When this is done, let the pupil add fence on either side of 
the gate, of his own design. 





106 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 



Fig. 22. 

See that tne curves are drawn with great care. 



Fig. 23. 


Remember that the lines representing top and bottom edges 
of roof, top and bottom of windows, and bottom of house, 
while nearly parallel, should yet converge a little, and those 
on each side, if produced, would meet in one of the two van¬ 
ishing points. 



Fig. 24. 

Let the scholar erase the dotted lines after using as an aid 
in drawing the figure. 







OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


107 



Fig. 25. 

In figure25, lot grass and trees be added according to some 
picture in a text book. 



Fig. 26. 

See that the sides are drawn to correspond, and let care be 
taken with the fins. 



Fig. 27. 

In figure 27 allow no careless work on the margin of the 
leaves or on the cups of the acorns. 





108 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 



Fig. 28 . 

In figure28be very careful about the expression given by the 
eye and mouth. 

Other pictures to draw may now be ob¬ 
tained from the dictionary, or any other book. 
The above is expected to aid in giving a con¬ 
trol of the hand, and a desire to make cor¬ 
rect work even if it takes time to do so. 


XLVII. WASHINGTON AND INDEPEN¬ 
DENCE. 

George Washington was born Feb. 22, 
1732. All through his boyhood he showed 
the sterling traits of manhood that charac¬ 
terized him in after life. His father died 
when he was eleven years old. George was 
always very obedient to his mother, and was 
very anxious to please her. He is especially 




OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


109 


noted for being truthful. He studied sur¬ 
veying, and became quite proficient in the 
business. He was appointed a military 
officer when only nineteen years old, and 
during the French and Indian war showed 
much bravery and discretion. When the 
Revolution began he was appointed com¬ 
mander-in-chief of the colonial forces. 

The people of the American colonies were 
used to thinking and acting for themselves; 
they were energetic and industrious, and 
were used to combating difficulties. So 
when England began to tax the colonists 
without giving them an opportunity to 
vote on the laws themselves, they resisted. 
The English king, George III, was obstinate, 
and placed an army in this country to make 
the Americans submit. Thus the war of the 
Revolution began. The struggle at first was 
to sustain rights claimed, but on July 4, 
1776, Independence was declared, and then 
the war was carried on that the American 
colonies might become a separate nation. 

Washington disliked war, but took com¬ 
mand and without pay toiled bravely for 
his country. He had enemies in his own 
camp, as well as in the British camp; many 


no 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


times he was defeated, but he never became 
discouraged. At length, after six years of 
war, the English army, under Lord Corn¬ 
wallis, surrendered, and two years later the 
English king acknowledged the Indepen¬ 
dence of the United States. When the 
United States Government was reorganized, 
Washington was elected President, and 
served two terms. After this he retired to 
his farm at Mt. Vernon, where he always 
liked to live. This farm consisted of 8,000 
acres, and Washington and his wife had 
about 200 slaves. Washington was strongly 
opposed to slavery, and after his death, by 
his will, his own slaves were liberated. 

On Dec. 14, 1799, Washington died. He 
was a true patriot and a Christian statesman. 
As the “ father of his country,” we owe him 
a debt of gratitude; in the words of Gen. 
Henry Lee, he was “ first in war, first in 
peace, and first in the hearts of his country¬ 
men.” 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


Ill 


XLVIII. SLANG. 

Slang is practiced in almost every coun¬ 
try. It is generally used by the vulgar, and 
by those who wish to assume the pretense 
of a knowledge of life and of the transient 
nick-names and street jokes of the day. 
Many of the words that formerly were slang 
are now accepted in good society, and also 
vice versa . But it is a good rule not to use 
any word not found in the dictionary. There 
are two grades of slang, one which is allow¬ 
able, and of this there is but little; the other 
is used only by the vulgar. 

Many slang words are of very ancient 
origin, such as “to cabbage” (to steal), “to 
gull” (to deceive). The old English plays 
teem with such terms. Vulgar society gives 
forty-three slang expressions for the word 
money. So much is slang used that “Slang 
dictionaries” are published. The words 
“deuce” and “dickens” are vulgar synonyms 
for “devil” To “dun” is derived from the 
name of a person, Dunn, who was a famous 
man to collect money by force. “Bosh” 
.(nonsense), is from the Gipsy and Persian 


112 THE TEACHERS' MANUAL 

Such expressions as “hold your jaw" be¬ 
long to the lowest grade of slang; do not 
use strong expressions, such as “dreadful 
fine," “ awfully nice," etc. They are slang, 
and often ungrammatical also. Like these 
specimens of slang are the following 

IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS: 

“I had an invite to call." Say invitation. 

“This is very different than that." Say 
from. 

“Carry the horse to water." Say take or 
lead. 

“Wait till I get my grub.” Say dinner. 

“They hairit gone yet." Say have not 

“This is mine, that is his'n.” Say his or 
his own. 

“The iron is het.” Say heated. 

“Have you got to goV 9 Say must you go ? 

“Says I." Say said. 

“I reckon it will rain." Say suppose or 
expect. 

“He sot down on a chair, and set a long 
while." Say sat. 

“He studies after night.” Say at night or 
in the evening. 

“He yanked at the rope." Say jerked. 


• OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 118 

“I have went there before.” Say have been. 
“I have saiv the man.” Say have seen. 


XLIX. CORK. 

Cork is the bark of a kind of oak tree that 
grows quite extensively in south-western 
Europe. Portugal supplies the most of it. 
Cork was known to the ancients, but it was 
little used until glass bottles began to be 
manufactured in large numbers, about 400 
years ago. The bark may be cut away from 
the tree every eight or nine years, (some 
say annually), during the months of July 
and August, beginning when the tree is fif¬ 
teen years old. It is said the tree will stand 
this continual robbery of its bark for 150 
years or more. 

After the bark is cut away it is soaked in 
water, pressed under heavy weights, dried 
and stacked. Machinery cuts the bark into 
strips and then into shapes to fit bottles and 
other vessels. The parings thus made are 
burnt, producing Spanish black. 

Cork is very buoyant, and is used in life¬ 
boats; the life-preservers, which are car- 
8 



114 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


ried on ships, are a kind of jacket con¬ 
taining a quantity of this material. The 
tree will grow in the southern states, and 
its culture may yet become a profitable in¬ 
dustry there. 


L. THE CATACOMBS OF ROME. 

The most renowned catacombs are near 
the city of Rome, and are long subter¬ 
ranean tunnels, in which the dead used to be 
buried. 

The rock in which they are cut is very 
easy to work, and a great many of the build¬ 
ings in the early days of Rome were built 
out of the rock quarried from these tunnels. 

The dead were placed in recesses along the 
sides of the tunnels. Each recess is j ust large 
enough to hold one dead body. The total 
length of the catacombs is 580 miles, and 
they contain in this manner the remains of 
possibly about 6,000,000 bodies. The tunnels 
are three or four feet wide, from five to 
twelve feet high, and on each side are tiers 
of these recesses. In many cases, after the 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


115 


body was put into the recess, the place was 
closed np by a slab, and on this perhaps 
there might be a picture of a dove, a scene 
from Bible history or an inscription. 

People often explore the catacombs, but the 
passages intersect each other so often, that 
a guide is necessary. Several persons have 
lost their way in them, and consequently 
their lives, wandering around until ex¬ 
hausted. 

When the Roman Emperors persecuted 
the Christians, as did Nero, the fugitives 
would fly to the catacombs and wait un¬ 
til the persecution was over. The miners 
were at work there when the Christians 
were hidden, but they befriended them. 
The Christians knew of many entrances to 
the catacombs that others did not. They 
came out at night to get food from their 
friends in the city, and if they were caught 
they were made to suffer horrible deaths, 
perhaps by fire or by wild animals. They 
dug away the soft rock and made chapels in 
the catacombs. They made paintings upon 
the walls that can be seen even now, some¬ 
times representing Bible scenes, sometimes 
illustrating scenes of martyrdom. The cat- 


116 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


acombs were used thus only for a few months 
or years at times of persecution, during two 
or three centuries. People are not buried 
in the catacombs now. 


LI. FREE TRADE VS. PROTECTION. 

Some countries, including the United 
States, tax manufactured articles that are 
brought into them from other countries. 
The tax is called a tariff, and is exacted for 
three reasons: First , to create a revenue to 
support the government. Second , to raise 
the price of the article, that persons within 
the country which lays the tax, may find 
profitable employment in the manufacture 
of these goods. Third , to reduce the amount 
of money sent out of the country to buy 
the goods. 

A part of the people in the United States 
believe in a tariff only so far as is necessary 
for revenue—this is “a tariff for revenue 
only.” Others believe in a high tariff, in 
order that we may manufacture as many as 
possible of the articles we buy, and this is 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


117 


“Protection.” Others believe in Free Trade, 
or no tariff at at all, on the ground that 
thus the goods will come cheaper to the 
consumer. 

It is a very debatable question, whether 
Protection, Tariff for revenue only, or Free 
Trade is the wiser for us, and the wisest men 
disagree. 


LII. ABOUT PLANTS. 

The Victoria water lily, which grows in 
South America, bears the largest known 
leaf. Its leaves average about six feet 
across, although specimens have been found 
that were twelve feet across. These leaves 
lie flat on the water, curled up around the 
edges something like a pan, and it is said 
that one of them will float a twelve year 
old child, if a board be placed on the leaf to 
prevent its being torn. Its flowers measure 
more than twelve inches across. 

But the largest flowers are found in Java. 
These are over three feet across, and w r eigh 
about fifteen pounds. But while the water 



118 THE TEACHERS' MANUAL 

lily has a sweet perfume, this monstrous 
flower smells like tainted meat. 

All green plants tend to grow toward the 
light, as plants reared in houses grow 
upward and toward the nearest window. 
Many dowers shut themselves up at night, 
like the tulips, pond lilies and dandelions. 
Some other flowers close during the day¬ 
time, as the four-o-clock, which closes about 
4 p. m. There is a flower called go-to-bed- 
at-noon that opens in the morning and 
closes at noon. Some flowers open and close 
several times before they die, others but 
once. The night-blooming cereus opens but 
once, and that in the night, closing again 
before daylight. 

When the sun is very hot the dandelion 
closes up to keep from wilting. In¬ 
sects are very fond of flowers, and many 
feed upon the sweet substances they hold. 
Such are the bees. Butterflies and humming¬ 
birds also live among the flowers. A curious 
fact about the bumble-bee is that he always 
collects honey from but one kind of flower 
on any one trip; after he has deposited that 
load, he may collect his next load from some 
other kind of flower. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


119 


LIII. KEROSENE. 

Kerosene is made from petroleum, by dis¬ 
tillation. Gasoline and various other sub¬ 
stances are also made from the same 
petroleum. Petroleum is a rock oil; it is 
the normal product of the decomposition of 
vast numbers of marine animal and plant 
organisms, made during the long ages that 
preceded man’s entrance into history. 

It was used but little, and that in southern 
Europe, before 1854. Then its value was 
discovered in America. In Pennsylvania 
large numbers of wells were bored and vast 
quantities of petroleum obtained. The first 
well furnished over 1,000 gallons a day, and 
the oil, from the great depth to which such 
wells are sunk, came up to within fifteen 
inches of the surface. Some people became 
suddenly rich if they found a good well, but 
many more became poor, not being success¬ 
ful in striking oil. Pennsylvania produces 
most of the oil now. 

Until this discovery kerosene was made 
from coal, and was not much used. Now, 
by distilling the petroleum, kerosene has 


120 THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 

become very cheap, and is used very exten¬ 
sively in lamps. Sometimes the wells, when 
oil is reached, throw it up like a fountain, 
and if this catches fire it makes a grand 
scene. 

Petroleum is not much used for fuel as 
yet, but experiments are being made with a 
view to burning it in steam engines. 

Care should be taken, if it is used to aid 
in starting fires, that it is not poured upon 
the wood when any fire is present, as it 
might flame up very suddenly, and even 
cause an explosion in the can. 


LIY. ARCHITECTURE. 

An architect is one who plans and often 
superintends the construction of build¬ 
ings. The principal materials for primitive 
structures were wood in Greece and brick in 
Egypt. We now use rock, wood, brick, 
glass and iron. Comparatively speaking, 
the two last named have not been many 
years thus in use. 

The ancient Babylonians erected very fine 
structures, and the Greeks built very fine 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


121 


temples, but for a long time the latter had 
a law forbidding architectural display on 
private residences. There are several orders 
of architecture, or methods of building and 
ornamenting, known as the Gothic, Doric, 
Corinthian, etc. 

Among the world’s greatest superstruct¬ 
ures are the pyramids in Egypt, which are 
supposed to have been erected as tombs for 
their kings. They are about 100 in number; 
the highest reaches 460 feet, and covers 
twelve acres. They were built mostly of 
rock, and in the centers of the principal 
ones were placed the bodies of the kings 
who caused their erection. The Washing¬ 
ton monument, reaching 555 feet, is the 
highest structure in the world. 

An architect is paid a considerable fee for 
plans, and for time spent in superintending 
the construction of a building, but it is also 
very necessary that he should be well in¬ 
formed in everything that pertains to the 
art of architecture. He must know some¬ 
thing of the several trades employed, such 
as carpentering, brick-laying, etc. He must 
be able to calculate just how large timbers 
and iron beams must be used, so as not to 


122 THE teachers’ manual 

put in more than is necessary, and yet have 
the building safe for use; and then must 
know just how to lay the beams to secure 
the utmost strength. He must have the 
building convenient for the purpose for 
which it is erected, and yet be pleasing to 
the eye. And in doing all this, have it cost 
as little money as possible. There are arch¬ 
itects in every city; all the larger build¬ 
ings, and many of the smaller ones, are 
erected on their plans and under their direc¬ 
tions. No boy can expect to become a good 
architect, unless he is willing to devote to 
it many years of hard study, both in school 
and afterwards. 


LY. THE PRESIDENT. 

The President of the United States must 
be a native of the United States, and be at 
least thirty-five years old. He holds office 
four years, and receives a salary of $50,000 
a year. The method of electing him is as 
follows: In each state the people, by voting, 
elect a number of electors, equal to the 
combined number of their representatives 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


128 


and senators; these meet at their respective 
state capitals, and vote for the President. 
The result of this vote is then transmitted to 
the presiding officer of the United States Sen¬ 
ate, who opens the votes and announces the 
result before the members of both houses of 
congress. The one who has the most elec¬ 
toral votes is declared elected, and takes the 
office on the fourth of the next March. The 
Vice-President is elected at the same time 
and in the same way. 

The President has the power to veto bills 
passed by congress; and after a veto the bill 
must be passed in congress by a two-tliirds 
vote of each house, in order to become a 
law. The President is commander-in-chief 
of the army, and appoints many of the 
officers of the United States. 

Including Cleveland, we have had twenty- 
two Presidents, among the most noted of 
whom were Washington and Lincoln. 

The Vice-President succeeds to the office, 
in case of the death, removal, or disability 
of the President. 


. 124 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


LVL TELEGRAPHY. 

The present system of telegraphy was in¬ 
vented about fifty years ago. Previous to 
that time, the usual method of sending mes¬ 
sages quickly to a distance was by means of 
signals; blocks of wood, flags, or torches 
were displayed arranged in different man¬ 
ners to answer for signs or words. Elec¬ 
tricity is the agent employed now, and is 
generated by certain chemical operations, 
the apparatus being called a battery. • 

It is a property of electricity to travel 
along a wire- All is so arranged that 
the battery can be connected, for a longer 
or shorter period, as one may please, with 
the wire you see on the poles. Machinery 
is arranged at the other end of this wire, so 
that a magnet attracts its keeper when elec¬ 
tricity is moving through the wire. Now, 
by connecting the battery with the wire, the 
magnet draws up its keeper. As soon as the 
electricity is shut off, by the battery and 
the wire being disconnected, the keeper falls 
back. Hence the man at the magnet end of 
the wire can see when, how often, and for 


OP SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


125 


what length of time the man at the battery 
end connects the wire and the ‘battery. By 
alternately connecting and disconnecting 
for shorter or longer periods, certain signals 
are conveyed, which are understood at the 
other end of the wire. The rapidity with 
which the electricity travels varies accord¬ 
ing to circumstances, but it is possible for it 
to reach thousands of miles per second. 

There are many advantageous appliances, 
not mentioned here, which are used on all 
lines, and machinery has been constructed 
which makes it possible to send several mes¬ 
sages over a wire at the same time. 

Morse, the inventor of our system, studied 
electricity many years before he discov¬ 
ered the telegraph. He applied to congress 
for aid to build a trial line, but people had 
little faith in it and he worked and waited 
many years before congress appropriated 
the necessary money. His after success re¬ 
warded his patient endeavors. 

The Atlantic cables are telegraph lines 
laid on the ocean bed. Several wires are 
twisted together, and covered by yarn, gutta 
percha, etc.* to protect them. The first 
cable was laid thirty years ago, but now 


126 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


there are many of them. The electricity is 
so weakened* by its trip through the ocean, 
that the operators are obliged to stay in a 
dark room and read the signals by the 
flashes of the electric sparks. 


LVII. BIRDS’ NESTS. 

Birds have many enemies, and the loca¬ 
tion they select for nesting depends to a 
large extent on the character of their 
enemies. Most birds build a new nest each 
year; but some, as the eagle, use the same 
nest several years. Birds are usually very 
skillful builders, and the less skillful ones 
often use the abandoned nests of other 
species. The blue jay sometimes lays 
in an old crow’s nest. 

Some of the Auk tribe place their single 
egg on a bare ledge of rock. The ostrich 
deposits her eggs in a hole in the sand, cov¬ 
ering them over. The male ostrich sits on 
them at night, and the sun keeps them 
warm during the day. The pigeon builds a 
very simple nest; the magpie surrounds its 
nest with a hedge of thorns. Many birds 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 127 

bore holes in sand-cliffs and place their eggs 
in the end of the tunnels. Some of the 
Swifts secrete from their salivary glands a 
fluid that hardens into a substance resem¬ 
bling isinglass. Such nests are considered 
edible by the Chinese, and are much sought 
after. The tailor-bird employs thread, and 
with this sews together the edges of a pair 
of large leaves to make a receptacle for its 
nest. 

Many birds hang their pocket-like nests 
from the limb of a tree, and some cover 
the top over and enter through a tunnel 
from below the nest. A Mrs. Hornbill allows 
herself to be walled up in a little mud house, 
closed all but a window through which her 
mate can pass food which he brings her. 

Sometimes birds make mistakes and sit 
on other birds’ nests. How surprised they 
must be when the little ones show their char¬ 
acter. The cuckoos will lay their eggs in 
other birds’ nests on purpose, and the other 
bird goes on and hatches them among her 
own eggs; but when the little cuckoos come, 
they throw the other little birds out of the 
nest, and grow fat on the food the deluded 
mother brings. 


128 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


LYIII. NATURALIZATION. 

Naturalization is the act of investing an 
alien with the rights and privileges of cit¬ 
izenship. When any territory, either by 
conquest or session, is added to another 
country, the people are usually given all the 
rights and privileges of citizens of the latter 
country. Such was the case when the 
United States obtained Louisiana and Texas. 
Naturalization was practiced among the an¬ 
cients, aliens often being given the rights of 
native born subjects. The North American* 
Indians frequently adopted Europeans or 
members of other tribes taken in war. 

The naturalization laws of the United 
States provide that the applicant must have 
resided in the United States for five years 
next preceding his admission, and at least 
one year in the state or territory where the 
court is held that admits him to citizenship. 
Two years before admission he must, in 
proper form, declare his intention to become 
a citizen here, and renounce allegiance to 
any and every other government. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


129 


To be admitted, it is also necessary that 
there be one witness to his residence here, 
and to declare him of good character. If 
the applicant came here before eighteen 
years of age, he can become a citizen with¬ 
out declaring his intentions, by complying 
with the other requirements. 

A woman, by marrying an American citi¬ 
zen, becomes an American citizen. 

An alien who enlists in the United States 
army and is honorably discharged, may be¬ 
come a citizen after one year’s residence. 

Sailors become citizens by declaring their 
intentions, and serving three years on an 
American ship; but a sailor is protected as 
a citizen after declaring his intentions. 
Civilized nations generally recognize the 
right of a man to citizenship where he may 
choose to reside, but naturalization laws 
vary among the nations. 

9 


130 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


L1X. OUR LAW MAKERS. 

The law-making power of the United 
States is vested in the two houses of con¬ 
gress. The house of representatives consists 
of 325 men, elected for two years, on the 
basis that each state shall have, as 
nearly as may be, one representative 
for each 154,325 people it contains. (Ap¬ 
portionment, March, 1883.) New York has 
thirty-four representatives, Iowa eleven, 
Illinois twenty, etc. The house elects its 
own presiding officer, who is called the 
speaker. The speaker appoints nearly all 
the committees, and as almost all bills are 
referred to these committees and the vote is 
usually according to their report, he holds 
a responsible office. 

The other house of congress is the senate. 
United States senators, two for each state, 
are elected for six years by their state legis¬ 
latures. The vice-president of the United 
States is ex-officio , their presiding officer. 
The salary of a member of either house of 
congress is $5,000 a year, and twenty cents 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


131 


per mile necessarily traveled, going and 
returning from the national capitol; except 
that the speaker of the house receives 
$8,000, and the Vice-President $10,000 per 
annum. A member of congress cannot hold 
any other office in the United States govern¬ 
ment. The President can be impeached 
and removed from office by congress. The 
house of representatives presents the bill of 
charges, and the senate acts as a jury, the 
chief justice of the United States presiding. 

In the state government, the lower house 
answers to the house of representatives, the 
state senate to the United States senate, 
and the two houses are usually known as 
the state legislature. The members of the 
legislatures are all elected directly by 
the people. The senate usually consists of 
men elected to serve for two sessions of the 
legislature, and the lower house of men 
elected to serve one session. 


132 


THE TEACHEB8 MANUAL 


LX. LINCOLN AND GARFIELD. 

“Honest Abe Lincoln” was born in Ken¬ 
tucky, in 1809. When a boy he worked 
hard on a farm, and spent but one year at 
school. However, nothing could prevent 
him studying, even while he used the 
light of a wood lire to study by, because he 
was too poor to buy candles. He read all 
the books obtainable, among which were 
“Pilgrim’s Progress,” “^Esop’s Fables” and 
a history of the United States. He copied 
into a scrap book the striking passages he 
found in his reading. 

When sixteen years old he worked at a 
ferry for $6 a month. Amongst other avoca¬ 
tions he split rails, clerked in a store, piloted 
a steamboat, engaged as a soldier in the 
Black Hawk war, became partner in a store, 
was postmaster, studied law and acted as 
county surveyor. He became the sixteenth 
president of the United States. Much of 
the burden of the civil war fell on him. 
But all through his life he was the same 
kind-hearted man, always honest, upright 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


188 


and without pride. Just as the war was 
over, he was assassinated by John Wilkes 
Booth, an actor, and died April 15,. 1865. 
Booth’s accomplices were arrested and four 
of them executed; he was killed while try¬ 
ing to escape. 

Lincoln was a good example of how en- 
ergy, perseverance and character, can lift a 
poor boy to a position of honor and trust. 

JAMES A. GARFIELD. 

This noted man was born Nov. 19, 1881, in 
a log house in Ohio. His father died while 
James was very young, and he grew up in 
poverty, working for the neighbors, or at 
anything that promised an honest dollar. 
For a while he drove horses for a canal boat, 
but like everything else he did, it was done 
well. He attended an academy, and to ob¬ 
tain the necessary means worked mornings 
and evenings at a carpenter’s bench, cook¬ 
ing his own food meanwhile. During the 
first vacation he chopped 100 cords of wood 
for $25. 

After three years of alternate study and 
school teaching, he entered Hiram Institute, 
where he performed the janitor work to 


184 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


obtain the necessary money to support him. 
Here he developed into an earnest Christian 
and became a member of the “ Church of 
the Disciples.” He attended Williams Col¬ 
lege and graduated there in 1856. President 
Chadbourne said that he went through col¬ 
lege without exhibiting a mean or dishonest 
trait. Thus he worked for his education, 
and what was the result? The rest of his 
life is summed up in a series of successes, 
occasioned by his never failing pluck and 
push. He became a member of congress, a 
general in the army, and finally President 
of the United States. The sad story of Gar¬ 
field’s assassination and death is familiar 
to all. 


LXT. PAINTING. 

Before writing was originated, the earliest 
people began representing, by rude pictures, 
what they wished to impress on the mind. 

The Egyptian painters were forbidden to 
introduce any innovations in the art, hence 
their figures have the square-shouldered 
look that is found in children’s drawing. 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


135 


About 400 years before Christ, the Greeks 
produced fine paintings, Aristides and 
Apelles being among their best artists. 
After the middle of the third century B. C., 
the art declined until the time of Constan¬ 
tine the Great, in the fourth century, A. D. 
Constantinople, named for him, was the 
great capital of the arts from the seventh to 
the thirteenth century, and the art of paint¬ 
ing began to revive in Italy and the west. 

During the sixteenth century, the grand 
climax of art was reached, and the greatest 
painters of modern times flourished to¬ 
gether. Michael Angelo and Raphael were 
very noted men at that time. 

Space forbids the mention of any Ameri¬ 
can artists. Most students of the art go to 
Europe to study it; the best instruction is 
found in France, Italy and Germany. 

Painting is not an art learned in a day nor 
a year, but requires long, careful study. In 
a picture, the form of every part must be 
faultless, the size correct, light and shadow 
must be in just the right proportion, the 
colors must in every tint resemble nature, 
and the whole picture must abound in ex¬ 
pression. The human face presents a great 


186 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


field for study, and no artist has yet been 
able to do justice to a beautiful sunset. 

The only way to become a good painter is 
to study very carefully all that pertains to 
the art, do well what you begin to do, and 
observe nature constantly. 


LXII. TEETH. 

In an adult person there are normally 
thirty-two teeth, sixteen in each jaw. In a 
child, previous to the second dentition, 
there are but twenty. The portion of a 
tooth above its socket is called the crown, 
the part below being known as the root or 
fang. The surface of the crown of a tooth 
is covered with enamel, a very hard sub¬ 
stance. Within this is the dentine, which 
more resembles bone. In the center of the 
tooth is a cavity filled with blood-vessels 
and nerves. 

Great care should be taken with the teeth. 
They should be cleaned each day. Biting 
hard substances, cracking nuts with the teeth, 
and other misuse of these useful organs 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


187 


should be refrained from, as they cause the en¬ 
amel to crack or break, and then diseases 
of the teeth destroy the dentine. When 
the nerve (which is in the cavity) is reached, 
it promptly reports the trouble to the brain, 
and we say we have the toothache. The 
only proper way then is to consult a dentist. 
Probably he will clean out the hole in the 
tooth and put in gold or amalgam to per¬ 
form the duty of the missing enamel. 

Notice how well adapted are the front 
teeth to biting and those further back to 
chewing. 

The birds of the present epoch are desti¬ 
tute of true teeth, but many thousand years 
ago some birds were provided with them. 
Pishes show great diversity in the position 
and development of their teeth. In the 
sturgeon there are none, in the pike they 
exist in almost countless numbers. In most 
fishes they are numerous, and in many rows 
on the jaw, or perhaps on the palate or 
tongue. In some cases they are movable. 
The teeth of but few fishes are covered with 
enamel, they are frequently shed and re¬ 
newed instead. Tortoises, turtles and many 
of the toad family have no teeth. The 


188 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


frog has teeth only on the upper jaw. 
Do you know where a cow’s teeth are 
placed? 


LXIII. SILK. 

Silk is a fiber obtained from the cocoons 
of the caterpillar of the mulberry tree moth. 
This insect is about three inches long when 
a caterpillar, and when this has wrapped it¬ 
self up into a cocoon and gone through the 
chrysalis state, which takes nearly a month, 
it emerges as a moth about one inch long. 
The eggs the moth lays are very small, but 
the young caterpillars grow so fast that in 
a month they are full size. Then they be¬ 
gin making the cocoons. First, the caterpil¬ 
lar makes a covering around itself of floss 
silk for protection, and then it begins spin¬ 
ning a long thread of silk, and winding it in 
the inside of the floss silk, and around itself. 
Within the last mentioned silk, it spins a 
finer kind which is firmly glued together by 
a sticky secretion, and makes a protection 
that resists cold air or water. The silk 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 139 

thread comes out of openings in the nose 
of the caterpillar. 

The cocoon thus built is from one to one 
and one-half inches long, has a bright yellow 
color, and it takes the caterpillar about two 
days to make it. If the owner wishes the 
chrysalis to develop into a moth that it 
may lay more eggs, it is left alone, and 
the moth, as it soon becomes, makes its 
appearance in two or three weeks, and soon 
after begins laying eggs. The mulberry 
tree, on which these insects feed, is found 
in China, and is also represented by some spe¬ 
cies in the United States, south from Penn¬ 
sylvania. If, as is usually the case, the silk 
in the cocoon is wanted, the chrysalis is 
killed by throwing it into boiling water. 
The cocoons are soaked to loosen the gum or 
sticky substance in them, and then the silk 
is removed by machinery. Several of these 
strands of silk are twisted together to make 
one thread for silk cloth. 

Silk is said to have been first used in China, 
and was introduced into Europe about 500 A. 
D. Some silk was raised in the United States 
when they were colonies, but the Revolution, 
and low price of silk, broke up the industry. 


140 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


We raise some silk worms now, but we buy 
about $25,000,000 worth of silk every year 
from other countries. Italy produces most of 
what Europe furnishes, but Asia supplies 
twice as much as all Europe. 


LXIY. CHRISTMAS AND NEW YEAR. 

Christmas is observed December 25, as the 
anniversary of the birth of our Saviour. Its 
celebration is said to have been originated 
by decretal letters of Pope Telesphorus who 
died A. D. 138, but it was observed upon 
various days of the year, until the fourth 
century, when the present day was agreed 
upon. 

A pretty European custom, now almost 
obsolete, was the singing of carols, in com¬ 
memoration of the songs of the Shepherds 
of Bethlehem. By an old German custom, 
the parents of a village sent all their pres¬ 
ents to some one person who was known as 
Knecht Rupert (Knave Rupert). He would 
go from house to house, was received with 
great pomp by the parents, and after mak- 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 141 

ing great inquiries as to the behavior of the 
children, would bestow the presents. 

The English used to celebrate the day 
with much feasting. The custom of deck¬ 
ing with evergreen was obtained from 
ancient Druid practices. Now the English 
celebrate more by family reunions and giv¬ 
ing presents, the burning of the yule log 
having died out with the custom of feasting. 
The Germans have a Christbaum or Christ¬ 
mas tree. “Santa Claus” answers to the 
old Knecht Rupert and was originally intro¬ 
duced by the Dutch in New York. 

NEW YEAR. 

While people have differed much as to 
which day begins the New Year, yet nearly 
all nations agree in distinguishing it by 
special festivities. The ancient Romans on 
that day sent presents to their friends, and 
offered many sacrifices. The Druids, who 
lived in England previous to the Roman 
conquest (B. C. 55) distributed pieces of 
their sacred mistletoe as New Year’s gifts. 
In England the New Year is ‘‘rung in” from 
the belfries of churches. In the United 
States it is customary for the gentlemen to 
make social calls upon that day, calling upon 


142 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


as many of their lady friends as they can. 
The Jews celebrate their New Year in Sep¬ 
tember. The Chinese celebrate three days, 
making calls upon their friends; fire-works 
are exploded, gongs are beaten, and a gen¬ 
eral hubbub prevails. 





OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


143 


LXY. FOUR NOTED SCIENTISTS. 

(Blackboard exercise.) 


DARWIN. 

1809-1882. 

English Naturalist. 

The exponent of the theory of 
the origin of species by 
means of natural selection, 
known as Evolution. 

NOTABLE BOOKS. 

“Origin of Species by Means 
of Natural Selection.” 
“On the Formation Of Mould 
by the Earthworm/’ 


TYNDALL. 

1820. 

Student of Physical Science. 

An excellent teacher of science; 
in his works he explains so 
clearly, that science becomes 
very interesting, and is 
quite easily understood. 

f “Natural Philosophy in Easy 
Lessons.” 

-( “The Forms of Water.” 

I “The Floating Matter of the 

L Air.” 


HUXLEY. 

1825. 

English Biologist. 

“Devotes himself constantly to 
scientific research/ ’ 

He has been the means of in¬ 
teresting many people in 
science. 

f “Lay Sermons, Addresses 
and Reviews.” 

“Lessons in Elementary Phy¬ 
siology/’ 

(.“The Oceanic Hydrozoa.” 

AGASSIZ. 

1807-1873. 

American Naturalist. 

Made numerous voyages to 
study marine life, and col¬ 
lected many specimens. 
Spent several summers in the 
Alps, twelve miles from any 
human habitation, in order 
to study glacier movements. 
“A Journey to Brazil.” 
“Contributions to the Nat¬ 
ural History of the United 
States.” 


Much of the interest now felt in these 
branches of science is due to these men; any 
writings of theirs may be read with profit, 
and will prove exceedingly interesting. 



144 THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 

LXVI. VOLCANOES. 

We cannot be sure of the origin of vol¬ 
canic action. The usual theory is that the 
earth is a molten mass with a thin but al¬ 
most solid crust. Volcanic action may pos¬ 
sibly be due to chemical action, or it may be 
that only comparatively small parts of the 
earth contain molten matter. 

Earthquakes often precede the eruption of 
a volcano, and sometimes this is the only 
result of volcanic action. The volcano has 
within it a mass of molten matter which 
contains more or less water. This water, 
heated into steam, expands, and on the prin¬ 
ciple of a bursting steam boiler, throws out 
the molten matter. Lava is usually a glassy 
substance, and consists mostly of melted 
rock. It may rush out in a stream and 
flow down the side of the mountain. 
Streams have been recorded that were fifty 
miles long and ten to twenty miles in width. 
A foam forms on the top of this river of 
melted rock. The lava hardens, on exposure 
to a lower temperature, and when partially 
hardened a person may walk over the sur- 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 145 

face, while, a few inches beneath, the rock is 
yet red hot. 

Scorise are large, rough cinder-like frag¬ 
ments thrown out of the volcano. The 
action of the volcano develops a great deal 
of electricity, and lightnings constantly play 
above it during an eruption. Pumice is a 
kind of lava which is thrown out, consisting 
of a mass of minute glass hubbies. It floats 
on water, and sometimes so much is thrown 
out on the ocean as to impede vessels. A 
great deal of rock is thrown vertically and 
much of it falls back into the volcano; as 
rock may do so many times, some of it be¬ 
comes reduced to a fine powder. This dust 
is thrown out during the latter part of the 
eruption, filling the air or being wafted by 
the winds for hundreds of miles. 

During an eruption much steam is dis¬ 
charged into the atmosphere, and this con¬ 
densing causes heavy rains to succeed an 
eruption. Mud volcanoes emit mud instead 
of lava. Geysers emit heated water and 
steam at intervals, and where they occur 
volcanic action is dormant or becoming 
extinct. 

10 


146 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


LXVII. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 

When the United States became independ¬ 
ent, people in Europe began to think that an 
absolute monarchy was scarcely the best form 
of government. France, at this time, by nu¬ 
merous wars and the extravagance and wick¬ 
edness of her rulers, was fearfully misgov¬ 
erned and taxed. Tw T o-thirds of the land was 
owned by the nobility and church, and thus 
exempt from taxation; hence the taxes were 
paid by the poorer class who owned only one- 
third of the land. 

There were a great many nobles, indeed 
one to every 250 inhabitants, and many of 
these, by oppressive taxation, managed to 
subsist on the labor of the working peo¬ 
ple. Louis XIV was king, and so extrava¬ 
gant that he had used over thirty million 
dollars for personal expenses. Men of influ¬ 
ence began to speak and write in favor of a 
better government, and the struggle culmin¬ 
ated in the Revolution of 1789. 

The king called an assembly to consist of 
representatives of the nobility, the clergy, and 
the common people. They met and began 
to consider the situation. The assembly 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


147 


quarreled, and the representatives of the 
common people declared themselves the law¬ 
making power. They abolished all feudal 
and manorial rights, while the nobility, 
frightened, left the country and began rais¬ 
ing armies to overthrow them. The king 
attempted to join the nobility, but the 
people rose against him, and made him a 
prisoner. Other nations of Europe sent ar¬ 
mies to aid the king, but the assembly 
raised troops to resist them. The king was 
tried and executed. 

Then a National convention was elected, 
and what is known as the “Reign of Terror” 
began. The rulers seemed crazed by their 
sudden elevation to power. Many of those 
who did not agree with them were arrested 
and executed without a trial. The state 
religion was abolished, and a farcical worship 
of the “Goddess of Reason” introduced. Af¬ 
ter a while, a re-action began. The leader, 
Robespierre, was killed. A new constitu¬ 
tion was adopted, and the foreign wars 
waged successfully. At length, after nine 
years of turmoil, Napoleon Bonaparte over¬ 
threw the government and was, by popular 
election, made the ruler of France. 


148 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


LXVIII. GOLD. 

Gold is the most valuable of the precious 
metals. When fine it is as soft as lead, and 
can be beaten out into very thin sheets, or 
drawn into long wires. This property is 
called malleability. If very thin, gold is 
transparent, and light that passes through it 
is of a green color. Gold is very widely dis¬ 
tributed in Spain, Africa, among the Ural 
mountains, in Australia and America. It is 
said that every ton of seawater contains one 
grain of gold. 

It is usually found in sand, or in quartz 
rock. If in the latter, machines crush the 
rock very fine, to separate the gold. If in 
sand, the old way was panning or washing it, 
hence the term, “pan out well.” 

The more modern method, if the gold is 
found in sandy or loose rocks, is to tear 
apart the rock by the use of water. This 
water is brought by pipes from the moun¬ 
tains, and pours out of the nozzle of a hose 
in a very strong stream, often six inches in 
diameter, and will scatter large boulders 
around easily. It thus washes out the sand 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


149 


and loose rock, and carries them over a set 
of sieves and troughs called sluices, in which 
the gold is separated from the sand by means 
of mercury. 

The largest piece of gold ore ever discov¬ 
ered was found in Australia and weighed 233 
pounds. When Peru was conquered by the 
Spaniards, the Inca or ruler was captured, 
and offered to fill a certain room with gold, 
as a ransom. The proposal was accepted, 
and the value of the gold obtained was over 
$15,000,000, but the Spaniards did not give 
the Inca his liberty. 

In 1848, gold was discovered in California, 
and many men at once journeyed thereto. 
They were compelled to cross the plains in 
wagons, (for there was no railroad,) or go by 
the way of the Isthmus of Panama. During 
this gold fever a few made fortunes, others 
lost everything. The western part of the 
United States has furnished a large supply 
of the precious metal. About three-fourths 
of the gold found is converted into money. 


150 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


LXIX. THE CRUSADES. 

The Mohammedans conquered Palestine, 
637 A. D., but they allowed all who wished 
to make pilgrimages to the country. Thou¬ 
sands of people went every year as pilgrims. 
About 500 years after, the Mohammedans 
began to treat the Christian pilgrims in a 
harsh manner. So a crusade or expedition 
was undertaken from Europe, to place Pal¬ 
estine under Christian rule. 

Peter the Hermit, was the first leader. 
Those who enlisted wore a figure of a cross 
on the breast or shoulder as a mark of dis¬ 
tinction. The armies of the first crusade 
were destroyed before they reached Palestine. 
In the next crusade, Jerusalem was taken af¬ 
ter terrible loss. A Christian kingdom was 
established there. To aid it, the kings of 
Germany and France gathered an army, but 
were defeated, and Jerusalem was soon tak¬ 
en again by the Saracens (Mohammedans). 
Then the king of Germany, the king 
of France, and Richard the Lion-hearted, 
king of England, started out to reconquer it. 
They took some cities but were defeated, and 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


151 


returned, leaving a few soldiers to hold the 
cities taken. Another crusade consisting 
principally of Frenchmen, failed, because it 
took part in a private war of a certain prince. 
Several other expeditions of this character 
were undertaken, but little was accomplished 
toward the attainment of their object. One 
of these was called the Children’s crusade, 
when about 70,000 children enlisted in three 
armies to conquer Palestine. A part of them 
returned home; others were shipwrecked and 
drowned, and an immense number were sold 
into slavery. 

At length, after two hundred years of cru¬ 
sades, continuing until about two hundred 
years before America was discovered, the 
Mohammedans drove out those Christians 
who had remained in Palestine, and have 
ruled the country since that time. Thous¬ 
ands of persons lost their lives in these mili¬ 
tary-religious expeditions, but the result 
has been beneficial to civilization, for intelli¬ 
gence came by travel; social caste was par¬ 
tially destroyed, and commerce was in¬ 
creased. 


152 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


LXX. EXPERIMENTS WITH ELEC¬ 
TRICITY. 


To perform all the experiments here given, you need two 
sticks sealing wax, a glass tube about twelve inches long 
and three-fourths of an inch in diameter, a piece of silk or fine 
silk handkerchief, (to be used folded several times), a piece of 
clean flannel (also folded), a piece of tin, (the top of an oyster 
can would do,) a straw, an egg, a rubber coat, two pieces 
of silk ribbon about eighteen inches long, a lath, a sew¬ 
ing needle, a sheet of foolscap and one of brown paper. Heat 
all your apparatus before using, that it may be very dry. 

Melt one end of a stick of sealing-wax, 
and fasten it in a vertical position on the 
piece of tin, like a candle-stick and base; 
put a sewing needle in a vertical position on 
the top of the sealing wax, the eye in the 
wax, and on the point balance a straw. The 
straw must be slightly bent, that the center 
may be higher than the ends. Rub another 
stick of sealing wax briskly, with the flan¬ 
nel, and it will attract the straw, which will 
follow the wax around turning upon its 
pivot. 

Rub the glass tube with the silk, and it 
will attract the straw. With either the 
electrified sealing wax or glass tube you can 
attract light pieces of paper, bran, etc. 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


153 


Balance a lath upon an egg. The egg 
should be placed in a cup to hold it, the 
small end up, and the lath must be smooth 
where it touches the egg. The electrified 
glass and sealing wax will probabty be able 
to attract the end of the lath, turning it 
around upon the egg. 

Heat well a piece of board; also a sheet of 
foolscap paper. Place the paper upon the 
board, and they exhibit no attraction for 
each other. Take a corner of the rubber 
coat, as large as the paper, and rub the 
paper briskly. (See that rubber, paper and 
board are all hot.) The paper will cling to 
the board. Tear it away, hold it at arm’s 
length, and bring it near a door or wall. It 
will cling tenaciously to either. It is elec¬ 
trified, and either it, or the corner of the 
rubber coat, will influence the balanced 
lath. 

Brown paper heated before the fire, and 
rubbed briskly with the dry hand, will also 
attract the lath. Cause the excited glass 
tube to pass near, but not touch, your face; 
it will feel as though a cobweb were drawn 
over it. 

Perhaps you will hear crackling sounds 


154 THE teachers’ manual 

while rubbing the glass or the sealing wax. 
These are the reports of the electric sparks. 
If you had been in the dark, possibly you 
could have seen them. You can often hear 
them if you rub a cat’s back in cold weather. 

The electricity generated on the glass 
tube is called positive, and that on the seal¬ 
ing wax is negative. Opposite kinds attract 
each other, like kinds repel. To illustrate 
repulsion: Hang the two silk ribbons, by one 
end of each, to some support. Rub both of 
them with the same piece of sealing wax. 
They will now possess the same kind of 
electricity, and will repel each other. The 
mutual attraction of opposite kinds of elec¬ 
tricity is illustrated by a stroke of lightning. 
The electricity of the earth at the point 
struck, being of the opposite kind from that 
of the cloud above. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 155 

LXXI. FARM CROPS. 

Wheat. —Wheat 7 has been cultivated as 
the principal source of food since very an¬ 
cient times. It was grown by the ancient 
Egyptians, and is mentioned in the Old 
Testament. Chinese history states that it 
was introduced into China 2700 B. C. It is 
a native of Central Asia. The “spring” and 
“winter” wheats are only forms produced by 
cultivation. The varieties are very numer¬ 
ous, one man having cultivated 322 kinds. 

Corn. —This plant probably originated in 
America, where it has been cultivated for 
centuries. The Pilgrim Fathers found the 
Indians raising corn. More people derive 
subsistence from it than from any other 
grain excepting rice. One man has brought 
from Japan a new variety whose leaves are 
finely striped with white. 

Oats.— These are supposed to have been 
found in a wild state, and attained their 
present worth by cultivation. There is a 
wild oat that grows in Europe and also in 
California, which does not produce a good 
crop of oats, but makes very good hay. 


156 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


LXXIT. NOTED ROMANS. 

Cicero (106-43 B. C.) was a great orator. 
He worked bravely against any party which 
he considered to be an enemy to freedom. 
A grateful people gave him the title of 
“Father of His Country.” He was killed by 
his enemies after they were victorious in a 
war that followed the death of Julius Caesar. 

Virgil, (born 70 B. C.), was “Rome’s Great¬ 
est Poet.” He was the son of poor parents, 
but studied and worked very hard. His 
greatest poem is the iEneid. One of his 
friends, Horace, was also a poet. 

Livy, (born about 59 B. C.), was a noted 
historian, and during forty years wrote 142 
books on Roman history. Most of these 
cannot be found now, but it is hoped that 
some day they will be discovered. 

Tacitus and Cato were also noted histo¬ 
rians. 

Pliny, the elder, (23-75 A. D.) wrote a book 
on natural history. He scarcely took time 
to sleep in order to study. In observing 
Mt. Vesuvius during an eruption he went 
too close to the volcano and was killed. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


157 


LXXIII. BREAD FRUIT TREE. 

This remarkable tree grows in Southern 
Asia, and reaches a height of forty or fifty 
feet. The leaves are long, sometimes attain¬ 
ing eighteen inches in length. The fruit 
forms the principal part of the food of the 
South sea islanders. When it is gathered just 
before it is quite ripe, and baked, it is white 
and mealy, and resembles wheat bread. 
Sometimes the people of a village join to¬ 
gether to make a huge pit, twenty feet or 
more in circumference, and therein bake sev¬ 
eral hundred bread fruits at once on hot 
stones. The trees give two or three crops a 
year, and a South sea islander who owns sev¬ 
eral of these trees can get the greater part of 
his food from them. A kind of cloth is made 
from the inner bark of the tree. 


158 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


LXXIY. BIRDS. 

THE SWALLOW. 

Nearly every one has seen the swallows 
with their nests fastened under the eaves of 
the barn, and the little eggs in those nests, 
white, spotted with ash and red. Their food 
is principally insects, and one of these birds 
will probably destroy one thousand insects 
per day. They fly at the rate of a mile a 
minute, and live more on the wing than any 
other bird, even sometimes feeding their 
young in the air. They pass the winter in 
the tropics, going during September and Oc¬ 
tober, and returning the middle of May. 

THE HUMMING BIRD. 

Humming birds have beautiful plumage, 
those species living in the tropics having 
the most gorgeous feathers. The humming 
sound is caused by the rapid vibration of the 
wings, which often move so rapidly as to be 
invisible. Their nests are about an inch in 
diameter, and contain one or two eggs. A 
long, narrow tongue, projects from the end 
of the bill, which disposes of insects; and with 
their long bill, they can reach the insects far 


OP SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


159 


down in the flower. Although most of their 
food is of this character, humming birds 
sometimes feed on the honey in the flower. 

THE OSTRICH. 

This is the largest of existing birds. It is 
from seven to eight feet high, and weighs 
from 80 to 100 lbs. The egg of this bird is 
twenty-four times as large as a hen’s egg. 
The ostrich does not use its wings to fly with, 
but it can run very rapidly, sometimes taking 
twelve feet or more at a stride, and going 
twenty-five miles an hour. They are hunted 
for their long, white feathers, which 
are sought as ornaments. The Bushmen 
clothe themselves in ostrich skins, and thus 
get near enough to the silly birds to kill 
them with poisoned arrows. Ostriches are 
raised on farms in Africa, in which country 
they are also found wild. A full grown live 
bird is worth $800 to $400. They are not par¬ 
ticular as to their food, swallowing indis¬ 
criminately, pebbles, pieces of iron, etc., as 
well as digestible food. 

• THE CONDOR. 

This is a bird of prey, found particularly 
in South America. It is of a brownish black 
color, and very large, its wings when spread 


160 THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 

measuring from eight to twelve feet across. 
It prefers solitude and high regions near the 
equator. They fly very high, and if hunting 
in pairs will attack large animals, but they 
as readily eat decaying carcasses. 

Many birds migrate to a warmer clime to 
spend the winters. One of the smaller birds, 
a warbler, takes a flight each year that 
equals perhaps 5,000 miles. The robin has 
been seen within the Arctic circle in summer, 
and in winter as far south as .Mexico. The 
cause of migration is probably the cold and 
the lack of food. Crows remain in the north 
during the winter. Jays, woodpeckers, etc., 
are partially migratory. After going south 
for the winter, robins and some others will re¬ 
turn to the same place they spent the sum¬ 
mer at before. How they find the way back 
again after traveling perhaps 2000 miles in 
returning, is indeed strange. Some birds, per¬ 
haps the majority, fly at night. Many dash 
against lighthouses and are killed; at one 
lighthouse near Denmark, great heaps of 
dead birds are sometimes found in the morn¬ 
ing by the keeper. Birds are able to fly a 
great distance without alighting; some have 
been found where they must have flown 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 161 

across the Gulf of Mexico. After such a long 
flight they are very tame. 


LXXV. COMETS. 

What a comet really is, or of what the 
tail is composed, are both mere matters of 
speculation. They come from infinite space, 
go around the sun, and then most of them 
return to unmeasured space again. The 
people of ages past considered them as 
omens of evil, and very brilliant ones pro¬ 
duced much terror. The head, or nucleus of 
the comet, is supposed to be of the same 
material as meteors, for the meteors are 
supposed to be the debris or remains of 
comets. 

On that supposition the comet must usu¬ 
ally contain stone, iron and nickel. In 
proof of the foregoing assertion, it is known 
that meteoroids follow comets; for the 
earth encounters many meteors when pass¬ 
ing near the orbit of a comet, which 
should have been at or a little past that 
place at that time. The November meteors 

follow in the wake of Temple’s comet. 

11 



162 THE teachers’ manual 

Many comets have tails, some have not; 
the tail of a comet is a bright streamer 
attached to its head, and which always 
streams out in a direction opposite to the 
direction of the sun. The reason for this is 
not known. The tail increases in length 
the nearer it is to the sun, and that of the 
comet of 1843 was 198,000,000 miles long. 
Some suppose the tail to be pieces or part of 
the comet, others that its appearance is due 
to light reflected by meteoric dust in space. 
Comets have little mass for their size. 
Encke’s comet, said to have a diameter 
twenty-five times that of our earth, has a 
mass of only t^Vif as much. 

A comet, except as it is acted upon by the 
attraction of other heavenly bodies, travels 
in a regular orbit or path. Some return 
every certain number of years, as Encke’s, 
which returns every three and one-fourth 
years. Comets become smaller as years 
pass by, constantly and rapidly decreasing. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


163 


LXXYI. SLAVERY. 

Slavery was in existence at the dawn of 
history, and the earliest writings refer to it. 
Kidnapping was a common mode of obtain¬ 
ing people to sell as slaves, and a war in an¬ 
cient times usually resulted in a large num¬ 
ber of the conquered people being carried 
away into slavery. In some lands masters 
have been very harsh to their servants, in 
others have treated them fairly well. 

Athenian slaves were well treated, but 
Spartan and Roman slaves were usually 
treated cruelly. 

In those times, negroes were not the slaves 
most dealt in, but all nationalities of 
Europeans, even those educated and re¬ 
fined, were, if kidnapped or captured in war, 
sold for slaves. Some wealthy Romans 
owned as many as 20,000 apiece; and it was 
not in the least extraordinary if there were 
more slaves than freemen in a country. The 
wars of Julius Caesar furnished half a million 
slaves for Rome. 

Just before America was discovered, ne¬ 
groes began to be sent to Europe as slaves. 


164 THE teachers’ manual 

When Columbus landed on the West Indies 
he made slaves of thousands of the Indians 
of those islands, and sent some of them to 
Spain. So cruelly were the Indians treated 
that some of the islands were almost depop¬ 
ulated. 

About 100 years ago a few people began 
to think slavery a wrong, and twenty years 
afterward the United States commenced an 
endeavor to stop the importation of negroes. 

Many of those who fought so bravely for 
independence for themselves in 1776, were 
willing to buy and sell men if only they had 
a black skin. 

Washington owned slaves, but they were 
liberated when he died. In 1843 nearly 
every slave in the British possession was 
emancipated. At this time many of our 
citizens wrote and spoke against slavery in 
our land, and were called Abolitionists. 
During the civil war (1861-65), President Lin¬ 
coln issued an emancipation proclamation 
as a military necessity, and soon after the 
constitution was so amended as to forbid 
involuntary servitude except as a punish¬ 
ment for crime in any part of our land. 
It is estimated that 40,000,000 Africans 


OF SCHOOL EXE^piSES. 165 

have been taken for slaves since Colum¬ 
bus discovered America. 

All civilized nations are trying to eradicate 
this traffic, but in Central Africa there is a 
large trade in slaves even now. 


LXXVII. ETIQUETTE. 

1. Always pass behind older persons, and 
not before them. 

2. Always add “ma’am” or “sir” to “yes” 
and “no.” 

3. Always thank a person for any favor 
offered. 

4. Always reply to a salutation, saying 
'‘good morning,” etc. 

5. Always reply “very well, thank you,” if 
one says, “how do you do.” 

6. Always say “excuse me” if you incon¬ 
venience others, as in making a mistake, 
or treading on their toes. 

7. Always put your hand over your mouth 
if you are obliged to yawn. 

8. Always be ready to offer your seat, if 
there be no vacant ones, to a lady or a per¬ 
son older than yourself. 



166 the teachers’ manual 

9. Always act respectfully toward aged 
people. 

10. Always be ready to do little favors,— 
such as to pick up a pencil or carry a 
parcel. 

11. Never keep the hat on while in the 
house. 

12. Never whistle or make a loud noise in 
company. 

13. Never ask many questions unless the 
answers will be of value to you. 

14. Never by whispering or laughing dis¬ 
turb a public assembly. 

15. Never read when company is present, 
but you may look over books or pictures. 

16. Never do too much talking in com¬ 
pany. 

17. Never interrupt another person’s con¬ 
versation. 

18. Never stare at any one. 

19. Never boast of attainments or suc¬ 
cesses. 

20. Never show temper while in the pres¬ 
ence of company. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


167 


LXXVIII. RUSSIA. 

Russia is the largest empire in the world, 
having about one-sixth of the firm land of 
the globe; but very much of the country, es¬ 
pecially in Siberia, is cold and barren. The 
ruler is called the Czar; the government is 
a despotism. Even an unfavorable criticism of 
the government may result in exile among the 
wilds of Siberia. Some Russians try to 
obtain a better government by using force. 
These are called Nihilists; they try to kill 
oppressive officers of the government, espe¬ 
cially the Czar. The father of the present 
Czar died by their hands. The serfs, prac¬ 
tically slaves, but in a better condition than 
slaves usually are, were freed just before the 
negroes were liberated in the United States. 
They numbered 40,000,000 people. 

The village government of Russia is en¬ 
tirely different from that of the United 
States. They have popular meetings called 
the Mir, in which are decided all questions 
relating to taxes and the village govern¬ 
ment. The land is held in common by the 
villagers, and apportioned among them at 


168 THE teachers’ manual 

these meetings, each family having a certain 
tract of meadow, pasture, and plowed ground 
to use each year. In these meetings they 
also decide on the days to plow, reap, etc. 

Russia has a standing army of 750,000 men. 
The people are mainly ignorant, and many 
of them semi-barbarous, but the higher classes 
are very well educated. It is a question 
whether the common people are well enough 
informed to govern themselves. The nobles 
own a considerable portion of the land. Rus¬ 
sia has many miles of railway, and is ex¬ 
ceeded only by the United States in the ex¬ 
tent of telegraph lines. 


LXXIX. PINS. 

Pins are of very ancient origin; they are 
mentioned in the Bible, and were in use 
among the ancient Egyptians and Romans. 
They were often objects of ornamentation, 
those of the Egyptians sometimes having 
gold heads. Up to the time of the discovery 
of America, the English made pins of 
wood. In fact, comparatively few pins 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 169 

were made previous to 1830, when the 
proper machinery was invented. 

Now the wire and paper are fed to the ma¬ 
chine, and without human aid the machine 
turns out the pins already put on the papers, 
ready for use. The machine spoken of cuts 
the wire the proper length, and sharpens it 
over two revolving file wheels; a steel punch 
and dies make the head, and then the pins are 
whitened, polished and sorted. Another part 
of the machine takes the pins and sticks them 
on papers, and they are ready for the market. 
An engine supplies power to run the ma¬ 
chinery. 


LXXX. POMPEII 

Pompeii was a city of about 30,000 inhabit¬ 
ants near Naples in Italy. Mt. Vesuvius is near 
by. At the time of Christ this volcano was 
quiet and had been for so long that orchards 
and forest trees covered it almost to the sum¬ 
mit. In 79 A. D., with but little warning, 
Vesuvius began a terrible eruption which 
buried Pompeii, two other cities, and many 



170 THE TEACHERS 7 MANUAL 

villages under a deluge of ashes and pumice 
stones. Pompeii was covered up and lost to 
the world, and above it grew vineyards, or¬ 
chards and woods. 

In 1748 some workmen discovered ruined 
walls, and more or less slowly excavations 
were carried on. Now, however, the city is 
being carefully unearthed, and the curious 
habits and pastimes of these people of the 
long ago are placed before us. The streets 
are cleared of the ashes, and the city 
is shown just as it was at the time of the 
eruption. Things found in the stores indi¬ 
cate the occupation of the owners. There 
are grocery stores, blacksmith shops, bathing 
houses and barbershops. Work of all kinds 
is found half finished, just as it happened to 
be when the eruption took place. In one 
baker’s oven were found eighty-one loaves of 
bread, pretty well baked; some had stamped 
on them “wheat flour” and others “bean 
flour,” and these very loaves of bread were 
placed in that oven over 1800 years ago. 
Amongst the ruins are those of the amphi¬ 
theatre where the gladiators fought. The 
skeletons of some of the gladiators were 
found in rooms in the building. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


171 


One of these gladiatorial shows must have 
been taking place just as the eruption oc¬ 
curred. Skeletons show people trying to es¬ 
cape, some carrying money. Fourteen skel¬ 
etons were found in one cellar, those of peo- 
. pie taking refuge there. A soldier was found 
erect at his post, who died there rather than 
desert it. Many beautiful paintings are 
fouud that show wTiatlife was then. It was 
near election time that the eruption took 
place, for inscriptions on walls advise peo¬ 
ple to vote for so-and-so. At one house en¬ 
trance is inscribed “beware of the dog.” 


LXXXI. TWO NOTED GENERALS. 

JULIUS CiESAR. 

Julius Caesar was born 102 B. C. At the 
time of Caesar, Rome was becoming the 
strongest nation in the world. Caesar early 
obtained a subordinate command in the 
Roman army, and was always diligent and 
successful in war. The provinces he gov¬ 
erned bore testimony to his statesmanship. 
On one expedition he invaded England 



172 THE teachers’ manual 

which was then a barbarous country. He 
became exceedingly popular, but his enemies 
managed to have him declared an outlaw. 
Thereupon he marched on Rome, defeated 
his enemies led by Pompey, and became the 
sole ruler of Rome, not in name, but in fact. . 
He strengthened the nation, and under him 
it included Italy, Spain, and parts of Eng¬ 
land, France and Germany. In 44 B. C. he 
was assassinated by his enemies, under the 
excuse that he aspired to be an absolute 
monarch. Shakspeare’s “Julius Caesar” de¬ 
scribes his death. 

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 

Napoleon was born in 1769. At this time 
France was a monarchy, but in a very weak, 
oppressed state. The revolution (1789-93) oc¬ 
curred when he was just beginning to dis¬ 
tinguish himself in the army. He sympa¬ 
thized with the revolutionists. As a result 
of his ability he was given the command of 
their forces in Paris, which placed him 
among the most noted generals of France. 
He worked hard for France, and harder for 
himself. At length he was made the ruler 
of France. He led her armies to victories 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


178 


all over continental Europe, in an endeavor 
to make his power supreme. But the other 
countries of Europe combined against him, 
he was forced to give up his rule, and 
was banished. Secretly returning, he gath¬ 
ered an army, only to be defeated at Water¬ 
loo (1815). He was taken prisoner and ex¬ 
iled to St. Helena, where he died six years 
later. 

Caesar and Napoleon are perhaps the 
greatest generals and statesmen of history. 
Neither cared much for anything but his 
ambition, and each sacrificed thousands of 
lives to his thirst for glory. Both were 
remarkable men but while we honor them 
for their skill as generals and statesmen, we 
cannot have a high opinion of them as men. 
A true man is not as selfish in his ambitions 
nor so unfeeling toward his fellows. 



174 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


LXXXII. SALT. 

Salt is obtained from rock-salt, natural 
springs, wells of salt brine and sea water. 
The most notable mines of rock-salt are 
at Wieliczka, Austria. They are about 
1000 feet in depth, and have been worked 
for over six hundred years. The excavated 
passages and galleries have a total length of 
400 miles. In one of these mines a cham¬ 
ber has been fitted up as a chapel, with 
pulpit, statues, altar, etc., all of salt, which 
glistens in the light of the torches. 

The best salt wells are in New York, 
which give a bushel of salt as the result of 
evaporating about forty gallons of the brine. 
It would take 300 gallons of sea-water to 
produce an equal amount. The salt is evap¬ 
orated by the sun, or by artificial heat. 
Sometimes the brine is exposed to intense 
cold, and as the ice formed is almost pure, it 
is removed, and the brine left at the bottom 
contains almost all of the salt, making less 
water to evaporate. In Louisiana is a salt 
mine which is said to produce one-half the 
salt used in the United States. It is nearly 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


175 


pure when found, and is mined by use of 
dynamite, and crushed in grinding mills. 
The mine was little worked until ten years 
ago. 

Animals and many plants will not thrive 
when deprived of salt, hut the excessive use 
acts as a poison. If salt is mixed with twice 
its amount of snow or pounded ice, the tem¬ 
perature of the whole will fall to five de¬ 
grees below zero. The reason salt is mixed 
with the ice in making ice-cream is ap¬ 
parent. 


LXXXIII. HOW LAWS ARE MADE. 

U. S. LAWS. 

There are two houses of congress, the sen¬ 
ate and the house of representatives. In 
either of these a bill may originate, except 
bills to raise revenue, which can originate 
in the latter only. 

A vote is taken on the hill in the house 
in which it originates, and if it pass by a ma¬ 
jority vote, it is sent to the other house. 
If this house also pass the bill, it is sent to 



176 THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 

the president. If he signs it or does not re¬ 
turn it within ten days (Sundays excepted) it 
becomes a law. If he veto it, he returns it to 
congress with his objections. In order that 
it may become a law over his veto, it is nec¬ 
essary that it again pass both houses of 
congress, this time receiving two-thirds of 
the votes in each. It then becomes a law 
the same as if the president had signed it. 

With the exception of slight differences in 
a few regulations, state laws are passed in 
the same way, the governor acting as does 
the president, and the state senate and lower 
house, answering to the congress. 


LXXXIY. ABOUT FISHES. 

SWORD FISH. 

This fish is common in the Atlantic ocean. 
It reaches a length of from twelve to twenty 
feet. The sword is from three to six feet 
long, consisting of bony matter and projects 
straight out in front of the body. The fish 
employs it to destroy its enemies, using it 
more as a spear than a sword. It sometimes 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


177 


rushes at vessels and buries the weapon deep 
in their timbers. It is a swift swimmer and 
very fond of pursuing shoals of mackerel. 

SHARKS. 

These are essentially carnivorous. They 
will devour either dead or living animal 
matter. The mouth is on the under side of 
the head, hence they are obliged to turn on 
the side or back to seize a large object. The 
white shark is known as the man-eating 
shark, and sometimes reaches thirty feet in 
length, and 2,000 pounds in weight. So well 
arranged are its teeth that they can divide 
the body of a man at one bite. There are 
several other kinds of sharks, but most of 
them smaller and not man-eating. Sharks 
often follow vessels to obtain the waste food 
thrown overboard. 

COD. 

These fish are found very plentifully in the 
Atlantic, and most notably near Newfound¬ 
land and Norway. The species best known 
as an article of food weighs from sixty to 
ninety pounds. At the Lofoden Islands, in 
Norway, on a propitious day, 7,000 boats bring 
in 2,000,000 cod fish. A single fish will often 
lay several millions of eggs, but the little 
12 


178 THE teachers’ manual 

ones have many enemies, and but compara¬ 
tively few reach maturity. It is a voracious 
feeder; and many rare and new shells from 
the deep seas have been found in the stom¬ 
achs of cod fish. 

FLYING FISH. 

These are able to leap out of the water, 
and by means of wing-like fins, fly several 
hundred feet before falling into the ocean. 
They are about one foot in length, and are 
found in tropical seas, and even along our 
coast up to Newfoundland. They sometimes 
alight on the decks of ships. Ocean birds 
watch for them, that they may seize them 
while out of the water. They make appe¬ 
tizing food. 


LXXXV. METEORS. 

Meteors are commonly called shooting 
stars, and sometimes fragments of them 
reach the earth. These pieces usually con¬ 
tain iron, stone and nickel, and come to us 
from outside space, under the influence of 
gravitation, that same force which causes a 
detached apple to fall to the ground. 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


179 


At the rapid rate our earth travels around 
the sun, about eighteen miles a second, it 
passes near to very many small bodies, and 
collides with some of them. The rapidity 
with which the meteors come toward the 
earth, produces such heat in them as to al¬ 
most always burn them up and scatter them 
in dust before they can reach the earth, the 
friction of the meteor in rapid motion 
through the air produces intense heat, on the 
same principle as unoiled machinery in 
rapid motion becomes hot. An observer can 
usually see, during a clear night, about 
500 meteors, But he sees those that fall in 
a comparatively small space, observes only 
while it is dark, and his eyes cannot see the 
smaller ones that burn while yet miles distant 
from the earth; hence, judging by the num¬ 
bers seen through a telescope, there are sup¬ 
posed to be, around the whole earth, 400,- 
000,000 falling every twenty-four hours. 
Most of these meteors are very small, and 
very few T reach the earth, but their dust is 
probably the substance which discolors the 
snow in many places in the Arctic re¬ 
gions. 

One meteorite that fell in Mexico weighed 


180 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


several tons. The surface of a meteorite is 
covered by a black substance, which is the 
outer portion of it melted and burnt. The 
nights about August 9 and 10, and Novem¬ 
ber 12 and IB, show more meteorites than 
other nights in the year, as our earth then 
goes through space where they are more 
plentiful. Many, or most of the meteorites 
are, probably, fragments of comets, the 
debris of the comets. 


LXXXYI. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 

Benjamin Franklin was born in 1706, died 
in 1790. He started in life as a poor boy, so 
poor that at the age of seventeen he walked 
up a street of Philadelphia, a stranger, and 
without a dollar in his pocket. His future 
wife stood in the doorway of her father’s 
house and remarked on his awkward appear¬ 
ance as he passed. Franklin studied early 
and late. He was a printer by trade, and 
whatever he engaged in he did well. When 
the American Revolution came, there were 
few more respected than he. Franklin was 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


181 


very economical, and was the author of Poor 
Richard’s Almanac, which was full of good 
advice about saving money and bearing a 
good character. 

He experimented with electricity by send¬ 
ing up a kite in a thunder storm, and col¬ 
lecting the electricity in a bottle at the end 
of the string; he discovered the principle of 
lightning rods. Franklin was always awake, 
not so much to accumulate fortune, as to 
benefit his fellow men. 

He was a skillful diplomat, and so much 
respected because of his wisdom and charac¬ 
ter, that he was able to do much to help the 
Americans during the Revolution. He ob¬ 
tained the help which they received from 
the French army, and signed the treaty of 
peace on behalf of the United States. He is 
a good example of what a poor boy may be¬ 
come in life if he has only pluck, industry 
and perseverance. 


182 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


LXXXVII. CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS. 

TO REMOVE COLOR FROM A ROSE. 

Procure a common, red rose and enclose 
it under a basin, with some sulphur pre¬ 
viously kindled in a tin capsule; the color 
will be discharged, but it may be recovered 
again by letting the rose remain in water a 
short time. 

TO CHANGE COLOR OF PAPER. 

Procure blue litmus paper; dip it in vin¬ 
egar and it will turn red, thus proving an 
acid in the vinegar. Dip it again, this time 
into an alkali, such as ammonia, and it will 
resume the blue color. These are the most 
simple tests for acid or alkali in any sub¬ 
stance. 

LEAD TREE. 

Select a wide-mouthed phial or bottle, or 
small decanter, and having dissolved some 
acetate of lead in water, filter it into the 
bottle and suspend therein a strip of me¬ 
tallic zinc. Place the whole aside carefully, 
where it will not be liable to be shaken or 
disturbed, and in a day or two the zinc will 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


183 


be covered with a beautiful precipitation of 
the lead in the form of a tree or bush. 

INVISIBLE INK. 

Write with a clean quill pen and a solu¬ 
tion of nitrate of silver. When exposed to 
the light or fire, the writing will turn per¬ 
manently black. If exposed to the fumes 
produced by a little sulphur and water 
thrown on a gassy coal fire, the writing will 
appear as if written in gold. 


LXXXVIII. ALCOHOLIC DRINK. 

The first effect of a glass of liquor is to 
stimulate the action of the blood, which 
now rushes faster through the arteries and 
veins. This produces mental and physical 
excitement. The sense of warmth that fol¬ 
lows is due to the pressure of the blood 
rushing through veins which are not large 
enough to properly carry it away from the 
surface of the body. The heat that should 
be saved is thus rapidly expended. 

When Russian troops are about to start 
on a very cold journey, no intoxicants are 



184 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


allowed; and Arctic voyagers agree that the 
men who drink liquor succumb to the cold 
the quickest. Alcohol is indeed a stimulant, 
such a stimulant as a whip is to a hard 
working horse,—it allows the little strength 
possessed to be more quickly used up. 

If a man drink to intoxication, the brain, 
lungs and other vital organs become sur¬ 
charged with blood; the man loses his judg¬ 
ment temporarily, and says and does what 
he would be ashamed of if sober. The ac¬ 
tion of the heart becomes feebler, the mind 
weaker, the body colder, and it all culmin¬ 
ates in a drunken sleep. It takes some 
time to wear off the immediate effects, and 
at each repetition the whole system weakens. 

Drinking seldom kills outright, but often 
produces some slow, painful disease. Some¬ 
times it causes delirium tremens, sometimes 
insanity, and is always quite sure to destroy 
true manhood. It is the first drop that 
paves the way to these undesirable conse¬ 
quences. 

Dr. De Marmon states that during a cer¬ 
tain ten years, drink, in the United States, 
cost the people $600,000,000 directly; it sent 
150,000 people to work houses and prisons, 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


185 


and made 1000 insane. And every drinker 
thought he could stop when he wanted to, 
but could he? 


LXXXIX. FLOWERS. 


The following are common flowers attain¬ 
able about the time of year stated, and in 
about the order in which they are named: 


Early Spring. 

Late Spring. 

Autumn or Late 
Summer. 

Rue-anemone. 

Violet. 

Larkspur. 

( Wind Flower.) 

Hepatica. 

Apple Blossom.. 

Morning Glory. 

(Liverwort.) 

Trillium. 

Cherry Blossom. 

Dahlia. 

( Wake-Robin.) 

Dutchman's 

Dandelions. 

Dardinal-flower. 

Breeches. 

Wood-anemone. 

Indian Turnip. 

Sunflower. 

Buttercup. 

Lily of the Valley. 

Lobelia. 

Bloodroot. 

Tulips. 

Blue Gentian. 

Spring Beauty. 

Snapdragon. 

Fringe Gentian. 

Blue-bells. 

May-apple. 

Thistle. 

Bellwort. 

Pond-lilies. 

Aster. 

Pansy. 

Lady’s Slipper. 

Goldenrod. 

Columbine. 

Four-o’clocks. 

Marigold. 


Let the scholars bring in all of these flow¬ 
ers they can find, some one day or more in 
each season named. Call their attention to 


the way the flowers differ from each other in 
the following respects: shape, size, color, fra¬ 
grance, arrangement—whether the flowers 




186 THE TEACHERS* MANUAL’ 

are on the same stem as the leaves or not; 
whether they are in groups or separate; 
the kind of plant the flowers appear on; 
the symmetry in number or multiples of 
some number of the inner leaves of the 
flower (corolla), outer leaves of the flower 
(calyx) and the stamens and pistils found 
inside these. Compare the buds and open 
flowers. 

Have the scholars draw the flowers or 
leaves of one or more plants. Note that 
the earlier spring flowers grow from bulbs. 

Below we give a sample object lesson 
with a flower. 


THE BUTTERCUP. 

Where FtiUND. —Often found in large 
numbers on the roadside or in meadows. 
What color? Whence did it get its name? 

The Root. —What is its shape? How 
does it differ from that of a carrot? What 
is it like? 

The Stem. —Compare it with stems of 
other flowers. Is it hollow? Break the 
stem—what sort of juice? 

The Flower. —Its color? What shape 
when open? What does it do soon after we 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


187 


pull it up? Notice the size and shape of 
the petals (inside leaves of flower), and 
what kind of calyx (outside portion of 
flower) it has. Can you see the calyx when 
the flower is open? The odor? 

Seeds. —When do they come? How ar¬ 
ranged? Do the seeds ever float in the air? 
How are they distributed? How planted? 


XC. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 

This name is applied to a condition of 
society that prevailed in Europe during the 
middle ages; first noticeable in the fifth cen¬ 
tury. It continued nearly a thousand years. 
At this time the Roman Empire had re¬ 
cently fallen into the hands of the Teutons, 
who were then barbarians, and all govern¬ 
ment was in a disorganized state. Many of 
the petty chieftains gave land to their fol¬ 
lowers, and in turn exacted obedience from 
them. Others, who owned land themselves, 
paid money to these nobles to protect them. 
And thus a custom came into existence. 

After a while it fully developed into the 



188 THE teachers’ manual 

feudal system. In this, a certain lord held 
sway in a certain county or counties. He 
was bound to protect the people under him, 
and at his call they all were obliged to be 
ready to aid in any war he chose to carry on. 
Some were called serfs, and these were vir¬ 
tually slaves. Others were better off, and 
were considered as renting the land from 
the noble, who was supposed to own the 
whole county. Some people, however, lived 
in cities, and these often governed them¬ 
selves, and thus had a more democratic gov¬ 
ernment. The people were treated very 
cruelly by the lords, who seldom cared how 
much they worked or suffered. In case of 
war, the king of the country called on the 
lords, and these went to his assistance with 
the men who were obliged to follow them. 
The strongest lords would sometimes defy 
the king. 

In France this system was the strongest 
and prevailed longer than elsewhere. Sev¬ 
eral causes contributed to its overthrow. 
The king was anxious to break the power 
of the stronger lords, the common people 
were tired of their tyranny, and the cities, 
which always favored the king, grew rap 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


189 


idly. In the crusades, many barons were 
killed; and often in the division of their prop¬ 
erty, or to provide funds to carry on the 
crusades, their lands would be sold. Certain 
persons, known as knights, traversed the 
country to protect the oppressed, and they 
aided in finally breaking the power of the 
lords. 

The feudal system is dead, but its relics 
are seen in the castles of England and Ger¬ 
many. The descendants of many of those 
old barons yet hold the manorial estates. 


XCI. THE TRADING RAT. 

These are sometimes known as timber 
or mountain rats. They dwell in the woods 
of the Rocky mountains. They are much 
larger than the common rats, and cats 
seem to be afraid of them. They are not 
afraid of men until they find that men are 
a source of danger. Their great peculiarity 
is the trading habit. They will take food 
from a pantry, or anything that suits their 
fancy from any part of the house, but they 



190 THE TEACHERS 7 MANUAL 

always pay for it, by leaving something in 
the place of the article stolen. If it is bread 
that they steal, or rather trade for, they 
may leave in its place some scraps of leather, 
bones and rags. 

They take a particular fancy to anything 
that glitters, often carrying off knives and 
watches. They are not particular as to the 
quality of the articles they leave in exchange, 
if what they get suits their fancy. 

They build their nests in the autumn, and 
with good common sense fill them with stores 
of eatables for winter. The nests are per¬ 
haps two feet in height, and made of grass, 
chips, bones, etc., and even of shreds of 
cactus leaves. 

A lady relates, in the Popular Science 
Monthly , that she found in a raffs nest a 
quart of potatoes, brought from her own 
garden one hundred feet distant. But they 
were not bitten or marred the least, and to 
bring them these strange creatures had to 
swim a small stream of water, which was 
used as an irrigating ditch. Another nest 
she found twenty-five feet from the ground, 
in a tree. It is said that a similar rat exists 
in the Andes mountains, and they have such 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 191 

fine fur, that one person has suggested rais¬ 
ing them for their wool and hides. 


XCII. MARS. 

Our earth may not he the only place in¬ 
habited by intelligent beings. There are 
seven planets beside the earth which re¬ 
volve around our sun. 

It is estimated that there are about fifty 
million stars in the universe, each of which 
may have many planets traveling around it. 
How many other stellar universes may 
exist in space, we cannot even conjecture. 
But Mars, a planet in our solar system, is 
the most easily examined of any heav¬ 
enly body, the moon excepted. 

Mars comes sometimes within the short 
distance of 3B| millions of miles of the 
earth. The men of ancient times called it 
the Planet of War, because of its reddish 
color. It has only two-fifths the surface 
that the earth has. The attractive power 
of gravitation there is only three-eighths of 
what it is here; that is, a man weighing 160 



192 THE teachers’ manual 

pounds here, would only weigh a little over 
60 pounds there, because all bodies attract 
according to their size and mass. So a man 
could easily leap to a height of five or six 
feet; but if he should stand on the sun, so 
much stronger is gravitation there, that 
simply his own weight would crush him to 
death. 

The length of a year on Mars is 687 of 
our days, and its days are about the same 
in length as ours. Mars has two small 
moons. There are continents, oceans and 
islands on that planet, as on the earth. 
These have been observed through tele¬ 
scopes, and some named after their discov¬ 
erers. Clouds move in its sky, and ice and 
snow are around its north and south poles. 

Whether life exists there or not, is yet, 
and probably will remain an open question, 
but there may be forms of organic exist¬ 
ence, that are very dissimilar to any that 
are found here. Possibly some intelligent 
beings, from that standpoint, observe our 
earth through telescopes, but our telescopes 
cannot reveal the answers to these interest¬ 
ing inquiries. And, as before stated, the 
other planets are yet more difficult of ob- 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 19B 

servation, so that we can say nothing as to 
forms of life on any of them. 


XCIIL INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS. 

There are certain plants that subsist to 
a greater or less extent on insects which 
they capture. One such plant is known as 
the Venus Flytrap. “The trap is at the 
apex of the leaves, which are fringed with 
stout bristles on either margin. It is aptly 
compared with two upper eyelids, joined at 
their bases. On each side are three more 
delicate bristles, so directed that an insect 
can hardly traverse it without touching one 
of them, when the two sides suddenly close 
upon their prey, the fringe of the opposite 
sides interlacing, like the fingers of two 
hands clasped together.” The insect is thus 
within the trap, which now presses down 
firmly upon him. A liquid is poured out by 
glands in the leaf, and the insect is digested, 
the nutritious parts being absorbed by the 
leaf; then the trap opens again. 

Other plants capture insects in similar 
18 



194 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


ways, but in some the leaf itself does not 
close up, but arm-like tentacles on the leaf 
bend down and hold the unlucky creature. 

Still other plants have pitcher-like leaves 
in which sweet water stands; this is suppos- 
ably bait for the insects, many of which fall 
in and are drowned. The leaves of some 
other plants have glands that secrete the 
sticky fluid found on the surface of the 
leaves, and which holds fast any insects that 
may alight upon them. 

Mr. Darwin, a noted English scientist, has 
made a great many experiments on these 
curious plants. He placed very small 
pieces of meat, drops of milk and similar 
food on the leaves, and watched the opera¬ 
tions that took place. The leaves absorbed 
the nutritious portions of the food, as they 
ordinarily digest insects. 

Under the title “Insectivorous Plants/’ 
Mr. Darwin wrote a very interesting book, 
detailing these experiments, and drawing 
conclusions. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


195 


XCIY. ELOCUTION. 

Elocution has been defined as the “art of 
speaking or reading naturally when one is 
excited, impressively when not excited, and 
in an interesting manner at all times.” It* 
may be practiced in the ordinary reading 
classes much more than it is at present. 

The exclusive use of poetry is the cause 
of much bad elocution. A free and easy, 
frank, manly and earnest style of oratory is 
much to be commended; and this is best ob¬ 
tained by using prose. The teacher should 
always have the scholar practice privately 
with him, before the public speaking. 
Otherwise, the scholar becomes fixed in 
his own ideas and habits of elocution. A 
very good plan for a speaker is to rehearse 
before a looking-glass, which will neither 
flatter nor deride. 

In speaking, the following advice may be 
useful. Walk firmly and calmly to the 
platform, turn around and face the audience, 
look them calmly in the face and then bow. 
In bowing, let the weight rest on the foot in 
the rear, body bend slightly forward at the 


196 THE teachers’ manual 

hips and the head sink backward a little at 
the same time. When the bow has been de¬ 
liberately completed, begin speaking; quite 
low at first (in ordinary pieces), gradually 
increasing to the intensity and pitch de¬ 
sired. Stand firmly upon the feet, with 
head and body erect, hands dropping easily at 
the side when not in use making gestures; 
the feet should be at an angle of from sixty 
to ninety degrees, usually the heel of one 
directed to the instep of the other. 

Let all your actions be free and easy, look 
the audience fearlessly in the face, speak 
earnestly, slowly and distinctly, giving suit¬ 
able expression to each idea by tone or ges¬ 
ture. Guard against speaking too loud or 
too low, against a drawling uniformity of 
tone and the exclusive use of either hand in 
gesturing. When done, pause a moment 
and bow, then return to your seat, walking 
as though conscious of having made an 
honest effort. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


197 


XCY. THE LIFE-SAVING SERVICE. 

About one hundred years ago, the first 
patent was granted for a life-boat. Since 
that time very much has been done to rescue 
from a watery grave, those who may be ship¬ 
wrecked. The U. S. government supports 
more than one hundred stations along the 
coast, where a constant look-out is main¬ 
tained for ships in distress. Each station is 
provided with a house, in which is stored 
various apparatus for saving life, and room 
provided for the six surfmen there employed. 
When a ship is in distress, it usually mani¬ 
fests it by discharging cannon, displaying 
signals, or firing rockets into the air. The 
surfmen go to it in a life boat, and bring to 
the shore those on board. The life boat is 
made very buoyant, and of such form as to 
prevent it capsizing easily. But it may be 
that the waves are raging too fiercely, for 
even a life-boat to venture. Then a small can¬ 
non fires a twenty pound ball over the vessel, 
and to this ball is attached a light rope, which 
of course falls over the ship; pulling on this 
rope, the sailors draw on board a stout rope, 


198 THE teachers' manual 

or hawser, with also a smaller rope. The 
hawser is fastened to the shore and the 
ship. Along this, by means of the smaller 
rope, a kind of small water-tight boat is 
drawn on board the ship. This is called the 
life-car. The wrecked passengers and sailors, 
or a part of them, enter this, and the serf- 
men pull it back to the shore. This is re¬ 
peated until all on board are saved. 

By these and other means the U. S. life¬ 
saving service, in the first twenty-five years, 
saved over 5000 lives. More property is 
saved than the whole service costs. Serf- 
men going to the rescue wear a life belt, 
which is a kind of jacket, fastened under the 
arms, and made mainly of cork, so that a 
man can readily float on the water, or swim 
to the shore. All steamboats in the United 
States are required by law to carry a num¬ 
ber of these, according to their passenger 
capacity. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


199 


XCVI. SCULPTURE. 

The term sculpture may be applied to the 
carving of any substance, or to any other 
process by which the imitation of objects is 
effected. Among the first results of this art 
were idols—imitations of men, animals or 
imaginary beings, which many of the an¬ 
cients worshipped. 

These idols were, in many instances, made 
of clay, but sometimes of bronze, wood or 
stone. Then we have statues of heroes 
and others, made generally to commem¬ 
orate some conspicuous event or act, or 
erected as a monument to some noted 
person. 

The most celebrated ancient sculptor was 
Phidias, born 484 B. C. A part of his 
work was executed in ivory and gold, and 
one of his most successful efforts was the 
statue of the god Jupiter. 

Powers is the leading American sculptor 
of modern times, his master piece being the 
“Greek slave.” 

Before casting, or carving out a statue, 
the sculptor usually makes a small model in 


200 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


clay or wax; this is easily moulded, and 
when its form suits him, he proceeds to 
make one of clay of the desired size, the 
same shape as the smaller model. When 
dried, the clay is baked, making terra cotta. 
If the final work is to be a plaster cast, this 
clay model is covered with a mixture of 
plaster of paris and water, which soon 
hardens. The clay is then carefully picked 
out, the inside of the hard plaster of paris 
greased, and this filled with soft plaster of 
paris. When this hardens also, the outer 
shell of plaster is carefully broken away, 
and a cast of the same shape as the clay 
model is left. 

If the finished work is to be in bronze, or 
other metal, another mould is formed, using 
the plaster cast to make it, and into this 
mould the molten liquid is poured, and of 
course takes the form of the plaster cast. 

If the final work is to be in marble, meas¬ 
urements are carefully taken on the plaster 
cast, and the marble chiseled to the same 
shape and size. All work must be skillfully 
finished by hand, and the best sculptor, as 
the best painter, is the one who comes near¬ 
est to a perfect imitation of nature. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


201 


XCYIT. LAYING OUT PUBLIC LAND. 

Initial points are selected, and from these 
points lines are laid out due east and west, 
which are called principal base-lines. Par¬ 
allel to these, lines are established twenty- 
four miles (four townships) apart, if lying 
north of the principal base-line, or thirty 
miles, (five townships) apart if lying south 
and these are called standard or correc¬ 
tion parallels, and in turn become bases 
for surveys immediately north or south of 
them. 

At irregular distances, perhaps 200 or 300 
miles apart, due north and south lines are 
surveyed, which are called principal merid¬ 
ians. Surveys in Iowa, Minnesota and Ar¬ 
kansas, are governed by the fifth principal 
meridian, and those of Nebraska and Kan¬ 
sas by the sixth principal meridian. 

Every forty-eight miles (eight townships) 
east and west of these, guide or auxiliary 
meridians are surveyed. These, with the 
standard parallels, constitute a framework 
for other surveys; as they are surveyed 
each half-mile is marked. Corners are very 


202 THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 

carefully placed and marked. The townships 
are surveyed, and each quarter section corner, 
on their boundaries, marked. A range is a 
north and south line of townships, and is 
counted from a principal meridian. 

The townships are laid out into sections. 
These are numbered as follows: The north¬ 
east section is number one, number two is 
directly west, and thus counted until num¬ 
ber six, which is the northwest section of 
the township; then number seven is next 
south of number six, and counted east to 
number twelve; then number thirteen is 
next south of that, and counted west as be¬ 
fore, returning in the next tier, continuing 
in this manner until number thirty-six, 
which is the southeast section of the town¬ 
ship. 

All discrepancies due to poor measure¬ 
ment and the curvature of the earth, are 
placed on the north and west sections in each 
township. The sections are divided up into 
quarter-sections. This system of surveying 
has been practiced for many years, and the 
land in most of the western states and terri¬ 
tories has been thus surveyed. 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


203 


XCYIII. RUBBER. 

Rubber is the product of certain trees, 
which are found in Mexico, South America, 
and the East Indies. It is sometimes called 
Caoutchouc. The rubber we use comes prin¬ 
cipally from Brazil. The trees grow very 
high and large, and the seeds are poisonous. 
The natives tap the tree for its sap, and this 
is collected in clay cups, one of which is 
placed at each incision in the trunk. If this 
sap is poured into any mould, it hardens into 
its form, (heat hardens it more quickly,) and 
we have rubber. The natives make every 
variety of fanciful articles out of it, even a 
kind of rubber shoe. 

Rubber is not as lasting or useful in this 
simple form, as in the combinations in which 
we use it. During this present century, sev¬ 
eral patents have been issued for improve¬ 
ments which have increased its value. There 
were no rubber coats or shoes seventy-five 
years ago. Charles Goodyear, after long 
study, and many experiments, discovered the 
best way to make rubber of real utility. In 
this method, from five to fifty per cent of 


204 THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 

sulphur is mixed with the molten rubber. 
The latter proportion to make what is known 
as ebonite. To make the rubber and sulphur 
incorporate well with each other, the mix¬ 
ture is subjected to great heat. 

Most of the rubber we use is imported 
from Brazil in its pure state, and is here 
manufactured into a variety of useful and 
ornamental articles. Machinery can cut it 
into threads so fine as to be woven into cloth; 
the elasticity is then restored by an applica¬ 
tion of heat. A large quantity of rubber is 
used for car springs, for belting in ma¬ 
chinery, for coats, and boots, and even for 
erasers, such as we use in schools. The man¬ 
ufacture of many of these articles require 
machinery and methods not mentioned here. 


XCIX. AIR. 

Airis a fluid, but not a solid nor liquid; it is 
of so little density that it is called a gas. It 
is so light a gas, that we seldom notice it 
around us as we move about. Yet there is 
substance to it. We say “the wind blows,” 
but what we mean is that the air is in mo- 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


205 


tion; and if it moves very fast over the earth, 
we say it is a hurricane, which in its power 
sometimes destroys the strongest buildings. 

If we use an air pump (made on the same 
principle as a pump to draw water,) and 
pump the air from the inside of a thin glass 
bottle, the air outside will press so hard, that 
it may break the bottle. The air above is 
pressing down upon us with a weight of 
fourteen pounds to every square inch of 
surface. Perhaps your hand, stretched out, 
is three inches wide, and five inches long, 
that makes fifteen square inches, holding 
above it 200 pounds of air. But beneath 
your hand, the air presses up as much, and 
the air inside your hand presses out, so that 
you do not notice that there is any pres¬ 
sure. 

We breathe to obtain for our lungs, and 
thus for our blood, oxygen, an element of 
the air, and to throw out from our lungs 
injurious gases. The oxygen, acting on 
the fatty portion of the food, produces 
warmth. The air becomes thinner, or rarer, 
as we ascend, so that on the summit of a 
high mountain, it is quite difficult to breathe. 
The pressure of the air is measured by an 


206 THE teachers’ manual 

instrument called a barometer, and by this 
the heights of mountains are often cal¬ 
culated. 

The air is held against the earth by the 
attraction of gravitation, and above a cer¬ 
tain point there is supposed to be empty 
space, until we come to other heavenly 
bodies, the nearest being the moon, 240,000 
miles away. Care should be taken to breathe 
only pure air; each person, at every breath, 
vitiates a certain amount of it, and in 
crowded rooms the air becomes unhealthy. 
Use pure air, and take deep inhalations. 


C. THE ELEPHANT. 

Most people have seen an elephant so a de¬ 
scription of its form is unnecessary. With 
its trunk an elephant can pick up a needle, 
or tear branches from trees. The ivory from 
its tusks forms an important article of ex¬ 
port from Africa, as the tusks are worth 
$60 to $100 each. Elephants attain maturity 
at thirty years, and live one hundred and 
fifty years or more. The African elephant 



OP SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


207 


can be distinguished from the Asiatic, by 
having three times as large ears. They are 
usually hunted with javelins by the natives. 
If at ease, they sleep on their sides; if dis¬ 
turbed, they sleep standing. A strong ani¬ 
mal can travel fifty miles a day with a load 
of a ton on his back. 

Elephants are sometimes caught by fall¬ 
ing into deep pits hidden by brush and soil. 
The Siamese tell a pretty story in this con¬ 
nection. The king of the rats was caught in 
a jar. An elephant came along, and broke 
the jar so that he could escape. The rat 
promised to reward his big friend if he ever 
had the opportunity. Years afterward the 
elephant was caught in one of these pits, and 
sent word by a parrot to the king of rats. In 
the night the rat king came with a million 
of his subjects, and they quietly leveled down 
one edge of the pit so that the elephant 
walked out and escaped. There is a moral 
to this. 

Sometimes the natives will enclose a few 
acres with a strong fence of logs, and from 
the gate run out fences in a Y shape for five 
or ten miles, making very light fencing after 
a mile or so. The hunters drive in a herd 


208 THE teachers’ manual 

of wild elephants, who do not try to cross 
the light fences for fear of traps. Soon the 
elephants get to where the Y conies together 
quite close, and then a great noise is made 
and the elephants dash into the yard at the 
end of the Y. Then tame elephants hold 
one wild one at a time while his legs are 
tied; the captured elephants are kept lying 
on their sides for about a week, without 
food or water, and then if released they will 
obey their keeper; while the elephant is 
being tied, the tears sometimes run down 
his face, and he seems terribly distressed. 


CL MUMMIES. 

In ancient Egypt it was customary to em¬ 
balm the dead, to prevent decomposition. 
These bodies, protected for centuries against 
decay, are now dried and shriveled; they 
are known as mummies. During several 
centuries a large proportion of the Egyp¬ 
tians were embalmed when they died. 
Alexander the Great was thus preserved, 
as also were Jacob and Joseph. The 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


209 


mummy of a Pharaoh who kept the 
Hebrews in Egypt as slaves, has lately been 
found in a cave. The custom was discon¬ 
tinued as early as the seventh century, but 
by that time about 400,000,000 dead bodies 
had been made into mummies. 

Hot only men, but also the animals they 
worshipped, were embalmed, such as apes, 
cats and fish. 

The most expensive process cost about 
$1200; but the expense was small if the 
body was only salted and boiled in bitumen. 
Those preserved in the latter manner are 
black, others have an olive color. After 
embalming, the body was usually wrapped 
in many folds of linen and placed in a 
coffin. The linen cloth was narrow, and 
sometimes 700 yards were used on one body. 
With the bandages were often placed glass 
beads, bracelets, etc. Sometimes these linen 
bandages were coated with lime, and on 
this were placed paintings in gay colors. 
Sometimes a portrait of the dead was placed 
over the head, and inscriptions are often 
found. On account of the expense of a 
funeral, the mummy would sometimes be 
kept in the house, and perhaps be given as 
14 


210 THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 

security for the payment of money. Egypt 
is said to have a dry climate, peculiarly 
adapted to the preservation of dead bodies. 

A great many mummies have been re¬ 
moved from their resting places during the 
past two or three centuries, and mummies 
of the better class are now quite scarce. 
Many have been burned for fuel by the 
Arabs, and ship-loads have been transported 
to England to be ground up for fertilizers. 
About the time America was discovered, 
certain preparations made from them were 
used as medicine. Painters sometimes use 
ground mummy to produce a certain shade 
in their pictures. 


CII. BELLS. 

Bells have been used since time imme¬ 
morial. In the time of the Israelites, golden 
bells were used as appendages to the dress 
of the high priest. The Greeks used them 
for military signals in their camps. The 
ancients used to put them on cattle, in order 
to find the cattle easier, much as some peo¬ 
ple do now. 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


211 


In England, for 600 years, and until 800 
years ago, it was the custom to ring a bell, 
called the curfew bell, in every village in 
the evening. At this signal, according to 
law, all fires and lights were extinguished, 
for the houses of that day were built of such 
inflammable materials that it was necessary 
to use every precaution against fire. 

The largest bell in the world is at Moscow, 
and weighs over 400,000 pounds. A piece of 
it is broken out, and now the bell stands on 
the ground and is used as a chapel, for it is 
nearly twenty feet across. The value of the 
metal in it is supposed to be $800,000. 

The most noted bell in the United States 
is the “ Liberty Bell, ” which was in the 
building where independence was declared 
in 1776, and was rung on that occasion. It 
is cracked now. It is kept in Philadelphia, 
but was for a while at the Exposition in 
New Orleans in 1885. 

Bells are made mostly of copper and tin, 
about one-fifth tin and four-fifths copper. 
Small bells are often made of cast steel. 

Sometimes several bells are made of such 
sizes that they give different musical tones, 


212 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


and music is played on them. Such a col¬ 
lection of bells is called a chime. 

The best in Iowa is at Iowa City, a chime 
of seventeen bells, that cost $10,000. Often 
chimes are arranged with a large clock, so 
that instead of the clock striking the hour, 
it causes the bells to play a tune. 


CIII. MARRIAGE IN CHINA. 

In China, the parents arrange the mar¬ 
riages and the young people themselves may 
never have seen each other before they are 
married. The boy’s parents engage some 
one to go, and on his behalf, make an offer 
of marriage to the parents of the girl. Then 
for three days they consider the matter, and 
if anything unlucky should happen during 
the time, such as breaking a bowl or losing 
some article, in either family, it is consid¬ 
ered a bad omen and the negotiation is bro¬ 
ken off. If the marriage should be decided 
upon, the two families concerned exchange 
certain paste-board cards, and the parties 
are considered as engaged. 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 213 

It may be any time from a month to 
twenty years before they are married. Then 
they go to a fortune teller to pick out a lucky 
day. The family of the bridegroom present 
to the bride’s parents the wedding cakes, 
material for the bride’s wedding dress, a sum 
of money, some red cloth or silk, a gander 
and a goose, and various other things. 
Many (in our opinion) foolish ceremonies, 
which space forbids us to mention, are scat¬ 
tered throughout the proceedings. 

The dowry, or outfit of the bride, is taken 
with much pomp to the bridegroom’s house. 
A bridal chair or sedan, to be carried on the 
shoulders of four men, is sent by the boy’s 
parents, and the next morning she is con¬ 
veyed in it to his house. The procession is 
preceded by a band of music, and fire-crackers 
are exploded on the way. During one of the 
ceremonies, both drink wine mixed with 
honey from the same goblet. When they 
sit down to their wedding dinner, the bride 
removes her veil, and her husband sees her 
face, often for the first time. She sits still 
and does not partake of any food, while he 
eats the dinner alone. They have a public 
reception in the afternoon and evening, when 


214 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


the invited guests bring presents, and all the 
neighbors come in to see the bride and com¬ 
ment on her appearance. 


CIY. THE WHITE ANT. 

In the temperate regions the common 
earth worm constantly stirs the ground in 
making its burrows, and so prevents it be¬ 
coming baked and hard on top. Darwin 
supposed that all the soil here is thus handled 
by worms every few years. But there 
are no earth worms in the tropics, and so the 
white ant stirs the soil in most places 
there. 

The white ant is a small insect, scarce 
one-half inch long; few people ever see one, 
for although it is stone blind, the insect 
seems to know that birds relish it. They 
keep hidden in this way: Suppose they want 
to get at a dry twig on a tree to eat it, for of 
such their food consists. They build a tun¬ 
nel of earth, up the tree, large enough to al¬ 
low them to pass up and down freely inside. 
An ant will carrv a grain of dirt up to the 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


215 


top of the partly built tunnel, and fasten it 
there with a sticky secretion which he pours 
over it to act as a mortar. Another ant adds 
another grain until the tree is covered with 
tunnels running along the branches, to find 
the dead twigs. Of course, after these tun¬ 
nels have served their purpose, tropical 
storms destroy them. 

Among the ants, you would notice some 
of a different shape, larger, and having eyes. 
These ants do not work as the others. They 
are the soldiers, and are about two for every 
one hundred ants in a colony. They stand 
guard over the others, and if foreign ants 
come to attack them, as they often do in 
large numbers, the soldiers fight very suc¬ 
cessfully. 

There is also a queen ant, about two inches 
long. She stays underground and lays all 
the eggs. She is fed by the rest, and several 
soldier ants stand guard by her. There is 
also a king, and both the king and queen 
have eyes. The white ants make very nu¬ 
merous tunnels in the ground, to use as 
residences and to protect the young ants. 

In Africa, the earth carried up from these 
tunnels often makes little hills ten or fif- 


216 


THE TEACHERS* MANUAL 


teen feet high, and close together on 'the 
ground. These are always filled with tunnels 
too. The dead twigs in the forests of Africa 
are eaten up by these ants, until the ground 
is as clear as in a nicely kept grove. The 
ants are very apt to eat the timbers in 
houses also. 


CY. CHARACTER. 

The best character is that which displays 
the highest type of manhood or woman¬ 
hood. The first thing that one desires to 
know about his neighbor is his character, is 
it excellent, or is it undesirable. A person 
may be devoid of wealth, of beauty, or even 
of talents, but if his character be good, he 
will be respected for it. Character cannot 
be bought, reputation often can. A good 
character is the natural result of right en¬ 
deavors, and the foundations should be laid 
in youth. 

Industry is necessary. The old adage 
says “The devil finds some mischief still, 
for idle hands to do.” Work wins respect. 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 217 

Diligent labor, either with mind or body, is 
the price of “ amounting to something.” 

Truthfulness is another great factor. If 
you wish your word to carry any influence, 
never deceive . “ Liars we can never trust, 

although they speak the thing that’s true. ” 
Either speak the truth or keep silent, for 
one falsehood often requires another. 

Honesty. —People say “Honesty is the best 
policy.” “ Never take from another person 
what you would not have him take from 
you.” Do you remember the president who 
was called “Honest Abe?” 

Courage is necessary. Do not be afraid 
to do what is right. Coward is a despicable 
name. Did you ever see a big boy abuse a 
smaller one? What should you call him? 
Coward! Have courage to learn your les¬ 
sons even if you do feel tired. Pluck is but 
another name for courage. 

Control Self.—Do not let your temper 
be your master. Do not speak harshly. 
When vexed, keep quiet. The old custom 
of counting one hundred before you speak 
angrily is worthy of honorable mention. 
Will Carleton says: 


218 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


“Boys, flying kites, haul in their white-winged birds, 

You cannot do that when you’re flying words,— 

Words that we sometimes think will fall back dead, 

But God himself can’t kill them when they are said .’ 7 

Be Kind to others. “Kind words can 
never die.” Do not treat unkindly those 
poorer than you. It is the unkind words 
and acts that you regret afterwards, not the 
kind ones. 


CVI. BOOKS. 

Books have been written and printed on 
various materials. Plates of copper and 
lead, stone, wood and even bricks were em¬ 
ployed among the ancients. Later on, the 
barks of trees were much used, indeed this 
is indicated by the Latin word for book, 
— liber. After this an Egyptian plant, the 
papyrus, furnished the material, and then 
leather was extensively used. At last paper 
was invented. The principal materials of 
which paper is now made are rags, waste 
paper (paper written upon), straw, esparto 
grass, wood, caiae. jute and manilla. The 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


219 


mill which manufactures the paper the 
“Youth’s Companion” is printed upon, makes 
many cords of wood into paper. Paper was 
not used in Europe until six or seven hun¬ 
dred years ago, while China and Japan used 
it centuries before. The first books were 
on blocks or tablets; but after flexible ma¬ 
terials began to be used, the books were 
rolled up into scrolls. Leaves of palm trees 
are even now used in India, to write upon. 

Almost coeval with the art of writing, 
were libraries, or collections of books. The 
Alexandria library is the most noted of the 
ancient libraries. It was collected with 
great expense by learned scholars who wrote 
copies for it of every valuable book they 
knew of. It contained at one time 700,000 
volumes. It was destroyed by ignorant 
Mohammedans upon their conquest of 
Alexandria, and these valuable books were 
burnt for fuel. 

The art of printing being invented about 
or soon after the time paper began to be 
used in Europe, caused books to be sold 
much cheaper, as up to that date they were 
all copied by hand. 

The largest library in Europe is at Paris, 


220 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


and contains 2,000,000 volumes. One library- 
in China is said to contain 300,000 volumes, 
thus having more than any public library 
in the United States. The largest collec¬ 
tion of books in the United States is at 
Boston. Now that printing makes books so 
cheap, every one should try to collect at 
least a small library of the best, not of 
paper covered novels, but of carefully 
chosen standard reference works, and the 
money will prove to have been well in¬ 
vested. 


CVII. KINDERGARTEN OCCUPATIONS. 

Many of the plays and occupations of the 
kindergarten system could not be advanta¬ 
geously employed in the common schools. 
Those we shall mention will serve more as 
hints, than as outlines of the Froebel system. 
Stick laying is a simple but very interesting 
employment. Suitable sticks can be ob¬ 
tained by cutting off the sulphured end of 
matches. Letters can be made with them, 
farms and houses planned, and various other 



OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


221 


amusements indulged in. Obtain whole 
yellow peas, and soak at least twelve hours 
in water. Sharpen the ends of the sticks, 
and by sticking the ends in the peas, struc¬ 
tures, chairs, baskets, beds, etc., can be made. 
The child can use his own ingenuity, after 
the teacher has shown him how to make the 
peas hold the ends of the sticks together. 

Strips and squares of paper, folded in 
various ways, can be made to represent ob¬ 
jects. By plaiting, pretty book marks can 
be made. A good assortment of colored 
paper makes it more interesting. Allow the 
children to cut out strips, paste them in 
some old book in the form of letters, and 
combine these into words. It will be found 
a help in teaching spelling to the younger 
children. Drawing is a pleasant employ¬ 
ment for the little ones, but the subject is 
more fully outlin ed elsewhere. In the spring, 
wild flowers may be made into bouquets. 
The objects aimed at in all kindergarten 
work is neatness and originality, while pre¬ 
paring the mind for the harder study yet to 
come. 


222 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


CVIII. CALISTHENICS. 

The following exercises in use in the U. 
S. army, to develop the muscles and aid 
in obtaining a correct carriage have been 
adapted from “Upton Military Tactics.” 

The teacher commands, “first exercise.” 
At the word “exercise” bring the hands to 
the front till the little fingers meet, nails 
downward, arms horizontal. (Teacher com- 
mands“ two”). Raise the hands in a circular 
direction over the head, the ends of the fin¬ 
gers touching, and pointing downward so as 
to touch the top of the head, thumbs pointing 
to the rear, and shoulders kept down, elbows 
pressed back. (“Three.”) Extend the arms 
upward to the full length, the palms of the 
hands touching; then force them back ob¬ 
liquely and gradually let them fall. 

The teacher commands “second exercise.” 
At the word “exercise,” raise the arms from 
the sides, extended to their full length, till 
the hands meet above the head, palms of the 
hands to the front, fingers pointing upward, 
thumbs locked, right thumb in front, the 
shoulders pressed back. (“Two.”) Bend 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


223 


over till the hands, if possible, touch the 
ground, keeping the arms and knees straight. 
(“Three/’) Resume an erect position. 

The teacher commands “third exercise.” 
Extend the arms horizontally to the front, 
the palms of the hands touching; (“two”) 
throw the arms, extended well to the rear, 
inclining slightly downward; at the same 
time raise the body upon the toes. (“Three”) 
Resume the usual erect position. The first 
and second motions of this exercise should be 
continued by the commands one, two-one, 
two, till the hands almost meet behind the 
back. 

The teacher commands “fourth exercise.” 
Raise the arms laterally until horizontal, 
palms of the hands upward. (“Two”) swing 
the arms circularly upward and backward 
from front to rear; (“three”) drop the hands 
by the side. When standing, have the heels 
together, (if possible), the feet turned out 
equally making angle of sixty degrees, body 
erect, arms hanging naturally, elbow T s near 
the body, head erect; eyes straight to the 
front, and looking nearly horizontally. 


224 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


CIX. A GEOGRAPHICAL EXERCISE. 

A (isle between England and Ireland) who 
lived in (theFather of our country) territory, 
one quiet (country of South America) day, went 
(Cape in Europe) to hunt for (lake in British 
America) and other game in the dense (lake 
north of Minnesota). He carried a (lake of 
North America) kind of rifle and a highly or¬ 
namented powder (cape of Sotith America). 
His shoes were of (country of Af rica) leather, 
and though a little (city of France) he thought 
they would keep out the (mountains in 
Africa). For provisions he had some dried 
(cape of Massachusetts) seasoned with (lake of 
North America)And (town of South America) 
pepper; also some (city of Peru) beans. He 
kept a sharp (cape on west coast of the United 
States) for game of all kinds, and soon saw a 
(city in New York) lying near a (city of Ar¬ 
kansas) on the edge of a river. He consid¬ 
ered this a (isle in Lake Superior) opportu¬ 
nity to (city in Idaho) the animal with a. 
bullet. But he missed; the huge (sea on 
boundary of Europe) animal rose, and (city of 
West Virginia ), chased him until an (ocean) 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


225 


who luckily was near, shot the creature in 
the (city of France ). However, our hunter 
killed two (lakes in North America) and re¬ 
turned home just as the full (mountains in 
Africa) was rising. 


CX. HINTS FOR “LAST DAY” EXERCISES. 

Dialogues and “pieces” are found in other 
works, so we will give simply a few hints on 
ways to make the “last day” exercises as in¬ 
teresting as possible. Give great care to the 
programme; it is advisable that the smaller 
scholars speak first, and that some very in¬ 
teresting or amusing exercises be saved for 
the last on the programme. Elsewhere in this 
volume will be found suitable experiments 
in chemistry and electricity, which will 
always prove interesting. For little children, 
a pleasing variation is obtained by three or 
four standing up at once and each speaking 
a verse; or, one starts on a piece, and at 
each verse another steps up and joins in, 
speaking in concert. Another pleasing exer¬ 
cise is to have two boys, about twelve to 
15 



226 THE teachers’ manual 

fourteen years of age, speak different pieces 
at the same time, each speaking as loud as 
possible, that he may be heard above the 
other. The title for this exercise is usually 
given as “Hear me.” The audience hears 
parts of both pieces, and all of neither, and 
is very apt to desire a separate repetition of 
each piece afterward. Another variation;— 
let one who is used to gestures repeat, as if 
speaking feelingly, emphatically, patheti- 
ically and earnestly by turns, the letters of 
the alphabet, as if they were the words of a 
foreign language. An amusing exercise is 
entitled “Woman’s Rights.” The girls ap¬ 
pear on the stage engaged in men’s occupa¬ 
tions, spading the earth, carrying a gun, sit¬ 
ting reading a newspaper or engaged in sim¬ 
ilar work. The boys are performing women’s 
work, baking bread, sweeping, or carrying a 
fine bonnet and parasol; music plays (mouth 
organ if nothing better), and they all keep 
time to the music. 

The calisthenic exercises (given else¬ 
where) may be performed by the school. 

Let the singing be good. For variations, 
we suggest a solo or a duet. Or, let one 
child, (a good singer), sing a solo and others 


OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


227 


join in the chorus. Pick out two of the 
smallest scholars who can sing at all, and 
let them sing a piece together. The teacher 
can stand near them and join in, in a low 
voice, when they hesitate. This looks very 
“cute” if the little ones perform their parts 
well. 

A neat, short speech by the teacher appro¬ 
priately ends the exercises. 


CXI. MOTTOES AND MAXIMS. 

These are designed to be placed upon the 
blackboard. My custom has been to write 
a new one on the board each week, and re¬ 
quire them to be learned. 

1. Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do 
it with thy might. 

2. Do unto others as you would have 
others do unto you. 

3. The diligent hand maketh rich. 

4. Never give up; try, try again. 

5. Spend less than you earn. 

6. Be sure you are right, then go ahead. 

7. Onward and upward; aim high! 



228 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL. 


8. Perseverance conquers all things. 

9. Industry makes all work easy. 

10. Kind words can never die. 

11. God helps those who help themselves. 

12. Add one little bit of knowledge to 
another little mite. 

18. Waste not, want not. 

14. Go to the ant, thou sluggard, learn of 
her ways and be wise. 

15. A penny saved is a penny earned. 



SCHOOL SONGS. 


I. HOME, SWEET HOME. 


PAYNE. 

Mid pleasures and palaces though we may roam. 

Be it ever so humble, there’s no place like home; 

A charm from the skies seems to hallow us there, 

Which, seek through the world, is ne’er met with elsewhere. 
Home! Home! Sweet, sweet home! 

There’s no place like home. 

An exile from home, pleasures dazzle in vain! 

0, give me my lowly thatched cottage again! 

The birds singing gaily that came at my call;— 

Give me them and the peace of mind, dearer than all. 

Home! home, etc. 

To suit a tune to which it is often sung, change the chorus 
to— 

Home! home, sweet, sweet home, 

Be it ever so humble, 

There’s no place like home. 


n. THERE IS A LAND OF PURE DELIGHT. 

WATTS. 

There is a land of pure delight, 

Where saints immortal reign; 

Infinite day excludes the night, 

And pleasures banish pain. 









280 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 

There, everlasting spring abides, 

And never-withering flowers. 

Death, like a narrow sea divides 
This heavenly land from ours. 

Sweet fields beyond the swelling flood 
Stand dressed in living green; 

So to the Jews old Canaan stood, 

While Jordan rolled between. 

Could we but climb where Moses stood, 
And view the landscape o’er, 

Not Jordan’s stream nor death’s cold flood, 
Should fright us from the shore. 


m. AMERICA. 

{Key of G.~) 


My country, ’tis of thee, 
Sweet land of liberty; 

Of thee I sing; 

Land where my fathers died, 
Land of the pilgrim's pride, 
From every mountain side. 
Let freedom ring! 

Our Father’s God, to Thee, 
Author of Liberty, 

To Thee we sing; 

Long may our land be bright, 
With freedom’s holy light, 
Protect us by Thy might, 
Great God, our king! 




OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


281 


IV. WAY DOWN UPON THE SWANEE 
RIVER. 

Way down upon the Swanee river, 

Far, far away; 

There’s where my heart is turning: ever. 

There’s where the old folks stay. 

All up and down the whole creation. 

Sadly I roam, 

Still longing 1 for the old plantation, 

And for the old folks at home. 

Chorus. 

Oh, this world is sad and dreary, 

Everywhere I roam, 

Oh, darkies, how my heart grows weary, 

Far from the old folks at home. 

All round the little farm I wandered, 

When T was young, 

Many the happy days I squandered, 

Many the songs I sung. 

When I was playing with my brother, 

Happy was I, 

Oh, take me to my kind old mother, 

There let me live and die. 


Chorus— 



282 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


V. ’TIS THE LAST ROSE OF SUMMER, 

MOORE. 

’Tis the last rose of summer, 

Left blooming alone; 

All her lovely companions, 

Are faded and gone. 

No flower of her kindred, 

No rosebud is nigh, 

To reflect back her blushes, 

Or give sigh for sigh. 

I’ll not leave thee, thou lone one! 

To pine on the stem; 

Since the lovely are sleeping, 

Go, sleep thou with them; 

Thus kindly I scatter, 

Thy leaves o’er the bed, 

Where thy mates of the garden 
Lie scentless and dead. 

So soon may I follow, 

When friendships decay, 

And from love’s shining circle, 

The gems drop away. 

When true hearts lie withered, 

And fond ones are flown, 

0, who would inhabit 
This bleak world alone. 







OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


288 


VI. THE SWEET BYE AND BYE. 


There’s a land that is fairer than day. 

And by faith we can see it afar; 

For the Father waits over the way, 

To prepare us a dwelling place there. 

Chorus. 

In the sweet (by and by) by and by (by and by). 

We shall meet on that beautiful shore, (by and by), 
In the sweet (by and by) by and by (by and by), 
We shall meet on that beautiful shore. 

To our bountiful Father above, 

We offer the tribute of praise, 

For the bounteous gift of His love; 

And the blessings that hallow our days. 


VII. MORNING SONG. 


M. P. S. 




(Tune —“Yankee Doodle.'’) 
Another school day now hus come, 
Another day for study; 

We’ve hurried so to be on time, 
Our cheeks are bright and ruddy. 

Chorus. 

Another day of work ahead, 
Another day of pleasure, 

We’ll study every lesson well, 

Each mite of knowledge treasure. 







234 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


In reading we will know each word, 

So we can read it steady : 

When we are called on to recite, 

We’ll have that lesson ready. 

Chorus— 

In Arithmetic we’ll have the rales, 

The problems shall be done, sir; 

If one but studies with a will, 

Examples are but fun, sir. 

Chorus— 

In Geography we’ll find the towns, 

Capes, rivers and the rest, sir; 

The one enjoys the lesson most, 

Who thinks he has it best, sir. 

Chorus— 

We’ll write and spell, we’ll parse the words. 
The very best we can, sir; 

The one who studies when a boy, 

Will make the wiser man, sir 

Chorus— 


VIII. THE SONG OF THE BEE. 

MARIAN DOUGLASS. 

Buzz-z-z-z-z—buzz! 

In days that are sunny 
He’s getting his honey; 

In days that are cloudy 
He’s getting his wax. 

On pinks and on lilies, 

And gay daffodillies, 

And columbine blossoms, 

He levies a tax. 





OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


285 


Buzz-z-z-z-z—buzz! 

From morning’s first gray light, 
Till fading of day light, 

He’s singing and toiling 
The summer day through. 

Oh! we may get weary 
And think work is drearj 
’Tis harder by far to 
Have nothing to do. 


IX SHALL WE GATHER AT THE RIVER, 


Shall we gather at the river, 

Where bright angel feet have trod, 
With its crystal tide for ever, 
Flowing by the throne of God. 

Chorus. 

Yes, we’ll gather at the river, 

The beautiful, the beautiful river, 
Gather with the saints at the river, 
That flows by the throne of God. 

On the margin of the river, 

Washing up its silver spray, 

We will walk and worship ever, 

All the happy golden day. 




236 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


X. WORK FOR THE NIGHT IS COMING. 

(Key of F.) 

Work for the night is coming, 

Work through the morning hours, 

Work while the dew is sparkling, 

Work mid springing flowers. 

Work when the day grows brighter, 

Work in the glowing sun, 

Work, for the night is coming, 

When man’s work is done. 

Work, for the night is coming, 

Under the sunset skies, 

While their bright tints are glowing, 

Work, for the daylight flies. 

Work, till the last beam fadeth, 

Fadeth to shine no more. 

Work while the night is darkening, 

When man’s work is o’er. 


XL LET US GATHER UP THE SUNBEAMS. 


Let us gather up the sunbeams, 
Lying all around our path; 

Let us keep the wheat and roses, 
Casting off the thorns and chaff, 
Let us find our sweetest comfort, 
In the blessings of to-day, 

With a patient hand removing 
All the briars from our way. 




OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


237 


Chorus. 

Then scatter seeds of kindness, 

Then scatter seeds of kindness, 

Then scatter seeds of kindness, 

For our reaping, by and by. 

Strange we never prize the music, 

Till the sweet voiced bird is flown! 
Strange that we should slight the violets, 
Till the lovely flowers are gone, 

Strange that summer’s skies and sunshine, 
Never seem one half so fair, 

As when Winter’s snowy pinions, 

Shake the white down in the air. 

Chorus— 


XII. THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER. 

KEY. 

Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn’s early light, 

What so proudly we hailed at the twilight’s last gleaming, 
Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight, 
O’er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming; 
And the rocket’s red glare, the bombs bursting in air, 

Gave proof through the night, that our flag was still there* 
Oh, say, does that star spangled banner still wave, 

O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave. 

On the shore dimly seen through the mists of the deep, 
Where the foe’s haughty host in dread silence reposes, 
What is that which the breeze, o’er the towering steep, 

As it fitfully blows,half conceals, half discloses? 

Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam, 

In full glory reflected, now shines on the stream. 

’Tis the star spangled banner! 0, long may it wave, 

O’er the land of the free, and the home of the brave. 



238 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


XIII. CARRY ME BACK TO OLD VIRGINY. 


JAMES BLAND. 


Carry me back to old Virginy, 

There’s where the cotton and the corn and ’taters grow, 
There’s where the birds warble sweet in the springtime, 
There’s where the old darkey’s heart am longed to go. 
There’s where I labored so hard for old massa, 

Day after day in the field of yellow corn. 

No place on earth do 1 love more sincerely, 

Than old Virginy, the State where I was born. 

Chorus. 

Carry me back to old Virginy, 

There’s where the cotton and the corn and ’taters grow, 
There’s where the birds warble sweet in the springtime, 
There’s where the old darkey’s heart am longed to go. 

Carry me back to old Virginy, 

There let me live till I wither and decay, 

Long by the old Dismal swamp have I wandered, 

There’s where this old darkey’s life will pass away. 
Massa and missus have long gone before me, 

Soon we will meet on that bright and golden shore. 
There we’ll be happy and free from all sorrow, 

There’s where we’ll meet and we’ll never part no more. 
Chorus— 




OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


239 


XIV. YIELD NOT TO TEMPTATION. 


H. R. PALMER. 


Yield not to temptation, for yielding is sin, 

Each victory will help you, some other to win; 

Fight manfully onward, dark passions subdue, 

Look ever to Jesus, He will carry you through. 

Chorus. 

Ask the Saviour to help you, comfort, strengthen and keep 
you, 

He is willing to aid you, He will cany you through. 

Shun evil companions, bad language disdain, 

God’s name hold in rev’rence, nor take it in vain; 

Be thoughtful and earnest, kind-hearted and true, 

Look ever to Jesus, He’ll carry you through. 


XV. THE MOCKING BIRD. 


I’m dreaming now of Hally, 

Sweet Hally, sweet Hally, 

I’m dreaming now of Hally, 

For the thought of her is one that never dies. 
She’s sleeping in the valley, 

The valley, the valley, 

She’s sleeping in the valley; 

And the mocking bird is singing where she lies. 






240 


THE TEACHERS MANUAL 


Chorus. 

Listen to the mocking 1 bird, 

Listen to the mocking bird, 

The mocking bird is singing o’er her grave, 
Listen to the mocking bird, 

Listen to the mocking bird, 

Still singing where the weeping willows wave. 

Ah, well I yet remember, 

Remember, remember; 

Ah, well I yet remember, 

When we gathered in the cotton side by side; 
‘Twas in the mild September, 

September, September, 

'Twas in the mild September, 

And the mocking bird was singing far and wide. 


XVI. I LOYE TO SING. 


E. L. HAINE. 

I love to sing, I love to sing, 

But why I cannot tell, 

I’m not a bird with agile wing, 

Nor sing I half so well, 

But yet when’ere I hear a bird, 
Pour forth its cheerful lay. 

My bosom by the song is stirred, 

I long to be as gay. 

Chorus. 

I hear the harp upon whose strings, 
The wandering breezes play, 

And so I sing, I love to sing 
That I may still be gay. 




OF SCHOOL EXERCISES. 


241 


I love to sing, no matter where, 
By stream, or grove, or sea, 
Some mystic music fills the air, 
And sets my spirit free; 

I hear the voices of the waves, 
And fancy then prolongs 
The music of the hills and caves, 
The grand ancestral songs. 

Chorus— 


XVII. WHEN THE HEART IS YOUNG. 


SWAYNE. 


Oh, merry goes the time, when the heart is young, 

There’s naught too hard to climb, when the heart is young; 
A spirit of the light, scatters roses in the flight, 

And there’s magic in the night, when the heart is young. 

Oh, sparkling are the skies, when the heart is young, 
There’s bliss in beauties’ eyes, when the heart is young, 

The golden break of day, bringeth gladness in its ray. 

And every month is May, when the heart is young. 


16 





242 


THE TEACHERS’ MANUAL 


XYIII. THE BROOK. 


TENNYSON. 


With many a carve my banks I fret. 

By many a field and fallow, 

And many a fairy forehead set, 

With willow, weed and mallow, 

1 slip, I slide, 1 gleam, I glance 
Among my skimming swallows; 

I make the netted sunbeams dance, 

Against my sandy shallows. 

Chorus. 

T chatter, chatter, as I flow 
To join the brimming river, 

For men may come, and men may go, 
But I go on forever. 

I steal by lawns and grassy plots, 

I slide by hazel covers; 

I move the sweet forget-me-nots, 

That grow for happy lovers, 

I murmur under moon and stars, 

In brambly wildernesses, 

I linger by my shingly bars, 

I loiter round my cresses. 

Chorus— 


























































































































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